"text":"The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood, coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great civilizations in Egypt. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C., and a series of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last native dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn were replaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. Arab conquerors introduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and ruled for the next six centuries. The Mamluks, a local military caste, took control around 1250 and continued to govern after the Ottoman Turks conquered Egypt in 1517.<br><br>Completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 elevated Egypt as an important world transportation hub. Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control of Egypt's government in 1882, but the country's nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire continued until 1914. Egypt gained partial independence from the UK in 1922 and full sovereignty in 1952. British forces evacuated the Suez Canal Zone in 1956. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have reaffirmed the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. The government has struggled to meet the demands of Egypt's fast-growing population as it implements large-scale infrastructure projects, energy cooperation, and foreign direct investment appeals. <br><br>Inspired by the 2010 Tunisian revolution, Egyptian opposition groups led demonstrations and labor strikes countrywide, culminating in President Hosni MUBARAK's ouster in 2011. Egypt's military assumed national leadership until a new legislature was in place in early 2012; later that same year, Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohamed MORSI won the presidential election. Following protests throughout the spring of 2013 against MORSI's government and the Muslim Brotherhood, the Egyptian Armed Forces intervened and removed MORSI from power in July 2013 and replaced him with interim president Adly MANSOUR. Simultaneously, the government began enacting laws to limit freedoms of assembly and expression. In 2014, voters approved a new constitution by referendum and then elected former defense minister Abdel Fattah EL-SISI president. EL-SISI was reelected to a second four-year term in 2018 and a third term in December 2023."
"text":"Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Libya and the Gaza Strip, and the Red Sea north of Sudan, and includes the Asian Sinai Peninsula"
"text":"An Nīl (Nile) river mouth (shared with Rwanda [s], Tanzania, Uganda, South Sudan, and Sudan) - 6,650 km<br><br><strong>note:</strong>[s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth"
"text":"approximately 95% of the population lives within 20 km (12 mi) of the Nile River and its delta; vast areas of the country remain sparsely populated or uninhabited, as shown in this population distribution map"
"text":"controls Sinai Peninsula, the only land bridge between Africa and remainder of Eastern Hemisphere; controls Suez Canal, a sea link between Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea"
"text":"Muslim (predominantly Sunni) 90%, Christian (majority Coptic Orthodox, other Christians include Armenian Apostolic, Catholic, Maronite, Orthodox, and Anglican) 10%"
"text":"approximately 95% of the population lives within 20 km (12 mi) of the Nile River and its delta; vast areas of the country remain sparsely populated or uninhabited, as shown in this population distribution map"
"text":"rapid growth in population straining natural resources; increasing soil salination below Aswan High Dam; desertification; oil pollution in coastal ecosystems; water pollution from agricultural pesticides, raw sewage, and industrial effluents; limited natural freshwater resources away from the Nile"
"text":"the English name Egypt derives from the ancient Greek name for the country, \"Aguptos,\" and the ancient Roman name, \"Aegyptus,\" with the Greek form coming from the words <em>aia gupos</em>, or \"land of the vulture;\" the Arabic name for the country, Misr, can be traced to the Assyrian word <em>misir</em>, meaning \"fort\""
"text":"the ancient Egyptian name of the original city was Khere-ohe or Kheri-aha; the modern city's name may also derive from the Arabic <em>al-qahir</em>, meaning \"the victorious;\" this is an Arabic name for the planet Mars, which was in the ascendant on the day in 969 A.D. when construction on the new part of the city began"
"text":"27 governorates (<em>muhafazat</em>, singular - <em>muhafazat</em>); Ad Daqahliyah, Al Bahr al Ahmar (Red Sea), Al Buhayrah, Al Fayyum, Al Gharbiyah, Al Iskandariyah (Alexandria), Al Isma'iliyah (Ismailia), Al Jizah (Giza), Al Minufiyah, Al Minya, Al Qahirah (Cairo), Al Qalyubiyah, Al Uqsur (Luxor), Al Wadi al Jadid (New Valley), As Suways (Suez), Ash Sharqiyah, Aswan, Asyut, Bani Suwayf, Bur Sa'id (Port Said), Dumyat (Damietta), Janub Sina' (South Sinai), Kafr ash Shaykh, Matruh, Qina, Shamal Sina' (North Sinai), Suhaj"
"text":"mixed system based on Napoleonic civil and penal law, Islamic religious law, and vestiges of colonial-era laws; Supreme Constitutional Court reviews laws"
"text":"several previous; latest approved by a constitutional committee in December 2013, approved by referendum held on 14-15 January 2014, ratified by interim president on 19 January 2014"
"text":"proposed by the president of the republic or by one fifth of the House of Representatives members; a decision to accept the proposal requires majority vote by House members; passage of amendment requires a two-thirds majority vote by House members and passage by majority vote in a referendum; articles of reelection of the president and principles of freedom are not amendable unless the amendment \"brings more guarantees\" "
"text":"president elected by absolute-majority popular vote in 2 rounds, if needed, for a 6-year term (eligible for 3 consecutive terms); prime minister appointed by the president, approved by the House of Representatives"
"text":"Supreme Constitutional Court (SCC) (consists of the court president and 10 justices); the SCC serves as the final court of arbitration on the constitutionality of laws and conflicts between lower courts regarding jurisdiction and rulings; Court of Cassation (CC) (consists of the court president and 550 judges organized in circuits with cases heard by panels of 5 judges); the CC is the highest appeals body for civil and criminal cases, also known as \"ordinary justices\"; Supreme Administrative Court (SAC) (consists of the court president and NA judges and organized in circuits with cases heard by panels of 5 judges); the SAC is the highest court of the State Council"
},
"judge selection and term of office":{
"text":"under the 2014 constitution, all judges and justices selected and appointed by the Supreme Judiciary Council and approved as a formality by the president of the Republic; judges appointed for life; under the 2019 amendments, the president has the power to appoint heads of judiciary authorities and courts, the prosecutor general, and the head of the Supreme Constitutional Court"
},
"subordinate courts":{
"text":"Courts of Appeal; Courts of First Instance; courts of limited jurisdiction; Family Court (established in 2004)"
"text":"28 February 1922 (from UK protectorate status; the military-led revolution that began on 23 July 1952 led to a republic being declared on 18 June 1953 and all British troops withdrawn on 18 June 1956)",
"note":"<strong>note:</strong> the Two Lands of Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt were first united politically around 3200 B.C."
"text":"<strong>description:</strong> three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; centered in the white band is the national emblem, a gold Eagle of Saladin; it faces the left side, with a shield on its chest, above a scroll with the country's name in Arabic<br><br><strong>meaning:</strong> the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black) overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white)",
"note":"<strong>note:</strong> similar to the flags of Syria (two green stars in the white band), Iraq (an Arabic inscription centered in the white band), and Yemen (plain white band)"
"text":"adopted in 1984, the coat of arms features the national symbol, the Eagle of Saladin; the eagle holds a golden scroll with the name of the country, “Gumhuriyet Miṣr al-ʿArabiyyah” (Arab Republic of Egypt), in Arabic script; the shield on the eagle’s chest shows the national colors of red, white, and black"
"text":"adopted 1979; the current anthem was written after the 1979 peace treaty with Israel; the composer is considered the father of modern Egyptian music; of the three verses, only the first verse is sung, preceded and followed by the chorus"
"text":"Memphis and its Necropolis (c); Ancient Thebes with its Necropolis (c); Nubian Monuments (c); Saint Catherine Area (c); Abu Mena (c); Historic Cairo (c); Wadi Al-Hitan (Whale Valley) (n)"
"text":"Africa’s second-largest economy; 2030 Vision to diversify markets and energy infrastructure; improving fiscal, external, and current accounts; underperforming private sector; poor labor force participation; expanded credit access"
"note":"<b>note:</b> central government revenues (excluding grants) and expenses converted to US dollars at average official exchange rate for year indicated"
"note":"<strong>note:</strong> data cover central government debt and include debt instruments issued (or owned) by government entities other than the treasury; the data include treasury debt held by foreign entities; the data include debt issued by subnational entities, as well as intragovernmental debt; intragovernmental debt consists of treasury borrowings from surpluses in the social funds, such as for retirement, medical care, and unemployment; debt instruments for the social funds are sold at public auctions"
"text":"mix of state-run and private broadcast media; state-run TV operates 2 national and 6 regional terrestrial networks, as well as a few satellite channels; dozens of private satellite channels and a large number of Arabic satellite channels are available for free; some limited satellite services are also available via subscription; state-run radio operates about 30 stations belonging to 8 networks; privately-owned radio includes 8 major stations (2019)"
"text":"Egyptian Armed Forces (EAF): Army (includes Republican Guard), Navy (includes Coast Guard), Air Force, Air Defense Forces, Border Guard Forces<br><br>Interior Ministry: Public Security Sector Police, the Central Security Force, National Security Agency (2025)",
"note":"<strong>note:</strong> the Public Security Sector Police are responsible for law enforcement nationwide; the Central Security Force protects infrastructure and is responsible for crowd control; the National Security Agency is responsible for internal security threats and counterterrorism along with other security services"
"text":"the EAF's inventory is comprised of a mix of domestically produced, Soviet-era, and more modern, typically Western, weapons systems; in recent years, the EAF has embarked on an equipment modernization program with purchases from foreign suppliers, including China, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, UAE, the UK, and the US; Egypt's defense industry produces a range of products from small arms to armored vehicles and naval vessels; it also has licensed and co-production agreements with several countries, including Germany and the US (2025)"
"text":"voluntary enlistment possible from age 16 for men and 17 for women; 18-30 years of age for compulsory service for men; service obligation 14-36 months, followed by a 9-year reserve obligation; active service length depends on education; high school drop-outs serve for the full 36 months, while college graduates serve for lesser periods of time, depending on their education level (2025)"
"text":"775 (plus nearly 200 police) Central African Republic (MINUSCA); 1,100 Somalia (AUSSOM); also has about 200 police deployed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo under MONUSCO (2025)"
"text":"the Egyptian Armed Forces (EAF) are responsible for external defense but also have an internal role assisting police and paramilitary security forces during emergencies and in anti-terrorism operations; the EAF also participates in foreign peacekeeping and other security missions, as well as both bilateral and multinational exercises; the military has considerable political power and independence; it has long had a crucial role in Egypt’s politics and has a large stake in the civilian economy, including running banks, businesses, gas stations, shipping lines, and utilities, and producing consumer and industrial goods, importing commodities, and building and managing infrastructure projects, such as bridges, roads, hospitals, and housing<br><br>key areas of concern for the EAF include Islamist militant groups operating out of the Sinai Peninsula, regional challenges such as ongoing conflicts and instability, and maritime security; since 2011, the EAF has been conducting operations alongside other security forces in the North Sinai governorate against several militant groups, particularly the Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham (ISIS); over the past decade, it has deployed additional units along the border with Libya, provided air support to the Saudi-led coalition's intervention in Yemen, and most recently boosted its presence on the border with Gaza in response to the HAMAS-Israel conflict; the Navy in recent years has sought to modernize and expand its capabilities and profile in the Eastern Mediterranean and Red Sea, including the acquisition of helicopter carriers, modern frigates, and attack submarines, as well as the establishment of a joint service military base on the Red Sea<br><br>the Multinational Force & Observers (MFO) has operated in the Sinai since 1982 as a peacekeeping and monitoring force to supervise the implementation of the security provisions of the 1979 Egyptian-Israeli Treaty of Peace; the MFO is an independent international organization, created by agreement between Egypt and Israel; it has about 1,150 troops from 13 countries; Colombia, Fiji, and the US are the leading providers of troops to the MFO (2025)"
"text":"Egyptian Space Agency (EgSA; established 2019); National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Science (NARSS; formed in 1994 from the Remote Sensing Center, which was established in 1971) (2025)"
"text":"has a growing space program and seeks to become a regional space power; operates satellites; builds satellites jointly with foreign partners but developing localized satellite manufacturing and support infrastructure; acquiring other space-related technologies through transfers and domestic development, including in communications, Earth imaging/remote sensing (RS), and satellite payloads and components; works with a variety of foreign governments and commercial space companies, including those of Belarus, Canada, China, the ESA and its member states (particularly France, Germany, Italy), Ghana, India, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Sudan, Uganda, Ukraine, the UAE, and the US; also a member of the Arab Space Coordination Group; has an active commercial space sector (2025)"
"text":"1960 - initiated a space program<br><br>1998 - first communications satellite (NileSat-101) built in Europe and launched on a European rocket (first African country to have its own communications satellite)<br><br>2007 - first remote sensing (RS) satellite (Egypsat-1) built and launched by Russia<br><br>2019 - first domestically produced RS cube satellites (NARSSCube-1 and 2) released from International Space Station; signed agreement with China for construction of satellite assembly, integrating, and testing facilities<br><br>2020 - announced a 10-year national space program, including initiating an astronaut training program and jointly developing with several African countries an RS satellite for monitoring climate changes<br><br>2022 - inaugurated a “space city” containing a satellite manufacturing facility, a research center, a space academy, and the headquarters of the African Space Agency (AfSA; inaugurated 2025); latest NileSat-series (NileSat-301) communications satellite acquired from Europe and launched by the US<br><br>2023 - three RS satellites (Horus-1, Horus-2, and MisrSat-2) built jointly with and launched by China; joined the China-led International Lunar Research Station project<br><br>2024 - experimental RS satellite (Nexsat-1) jointly developed with a European commercial company and launched by China"
"note":"<strong>note:</strong> details about the history, aims, leadership, organization, areas of operation, tactics, targets, weapons, size, and sources of support of the group(s) appear(s) in the Terrorism reference guide"
