"text":"<p>Between A.D. 800 and 1100, immigrant Muslim Arabs and Persians set up coastal trading posts along the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean, solidifying present-day Somalia’s close trading relationship with the Arab Peninsula. In the late 19th century, Britain, France, and Italy established colonies in the Somali Peninsula that lasted until 1960, when British Somaliland gained independence and joined with Italian Somaliland to form the Republic of Somalia. <br><br>The country functioned as a parliamentary democracy until 1969, when General Mohamed SIAD Barre took control in a coup, beginning a 22-year socialist dictatorship. In an effort to centralize power, SIAD called for the eradication of the clan, the key cultural and social organizing principle in Somali society. Resistance to SIAD’s socialist leadership, which was causing a rapid deterioration of the country, prompted allied clan militias to overthrow SIAD in 1991, resulting in state collapse. Subsequent fighting between rival clans for resources and territory overwhelmed the country, causing a manmade famine and prompting international intervention. Beginning in 1993, the UN spearheaded an international humanitarian mission, but the international community largely withdrew by 1995 after an incident that became known as Black Hawk Down, in which two US military helicopters were shot down in Mogadishu. The fighting and subsequent siege and rescue resulted in 21 deaths and 82 wounded among the international forces.<br><br>International peace conferences in the 2000s resulted in a number of transitional governments that operated outside Somalia. Left largely to themselves, Somalis in the country established alternative governance structures; some areas formed their own administrations, such as Somaliland and Puntland, while others developed localized institutions. Many local populations turned to sharia courts, an Islamic judicial system that implements religious law. Several of these courts came together in 2006 to form the Islamic Courts Union (ICU). The ICU established order in many areas of central and southern Somalia, including Mogadishu, but was forced out when Ethiopia intervened militarily in 2006 on behalf of the Somali Transitional Federal Government (TFG). As the TFG settled in the capital, the ICU fled to rural areas or left Somalia altogether, but the organization reemerged less than a year later as the Islamic insurgent and terrorist movement al-Shabaab, which is still active today. <br><br>In 2007, the African Union (AU) established a peacekeeping force, took over security responsibility for the country, and gave the TFG space to develop Somalia’s new government. By 2012, Somali powerbrokers agreed on a provisional constitution with a loose federal structure and established a central government in Mogadishu called the Somali Federal Government (SFG). Since then, the country has seen several interim regional administrations and three presidential elections, but significant governance and security problems remain because al-Shabaab still controls large portions of the country.</p>"
"text":"principally desert; northeast monsoon (December to February), moderate temperatures in north and hot in south; southwest monsoon (May to October), torrid in the north and hot in the south, irregular rainfall, hot and humid periods (tangambili) between monsoons"
},
"Terrain":{
"text":"mostly flat to undulating plateau rising to hills in north"
"text":"distribution varies greatly throughout the country; least densely populated areas are in the northeast and central regions, as well as areas along the Kenyan border; most populated areas are in and around the cities of Mogadishu, Marka, Boorama, Hargeysa, and Baidoa, as shown on this population distribution map"
"text":"<br>Buugga Xaqiiqda Aduunka, waa laga maarmaanka macluumaadka assasiga. (Somali)<br><br>The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information."
"text":"distribution varies greatly throughout the country; least densely populated areas are in the northeast and central regions, as well as areas along the Kenyan border; most populated areas are in and around the cities of Mogadishu, Marka, Boorama, Hargeysa, and Baidoa, as shown on this population distribution map"
"text":"Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection"
},
"signed, but not ratified":{
"text":"Nuclear Test Ban"
}
},
"Climate":{
"text":"principally desert; northeast monsoon (December to February), moderate temperatures in north and hot in south; southwest monsoon (May to October), torrid in the north and hot in the south, irregular rainfall, hot and humid periods (tangambili) between monsoons"
"text":"the name means \"Land of the Somali,\" a local ethnic group; the origin of the group's name is unclear but may come from 1) a Cushitic word meaning \"dark,\" 2) the local phrase <em>soo mal</em>, meaning \"go and milk\" (referring to offering guests milk), 3) the name of a local chief, or 4) the Arabic <em>zamla</em>, meaning \"cattle\""
"text":"proposed by the federal government, by members of the state governments, the Federal Parliament, or by public petition; proposals require review by a joint committee of Parliament with inclusion of public comments and state legislatures’ comments; passage requires at least two-thirds majority vote in both houses of Parliament and approval by a majority of votes cast in a referendum; constitutional clauses on Islamic principles, the federal system, human rights and freedoms, powers and authorities of the government branches, and inclusion of women in national institutions cannot be amended"
"text":"president indirectly elected by the Federal Parliament by two-thirds majority vote in 2 rounds, if needed, for a single 4-year term; prime minister appointed by the president, approved by the House of the People"
"text":"<em><br>2022:</em> HASSAN SHEIKH Mohamud elected president in third round - Federal Parliament percent of vote in first round - Said ABDULLAHI DENI (Kaah) 20.2%, Mohamed ABDULLAHI Mohamed \"Farmaajo\" (TPP) 18.3%, HASSAN SHEIKH Mohamud (PDP) 16.2%, Hassan Ali KHAYRE (independent) 14.6%, other 30.7%; Federal Parliament percent of vote in second round - HASSAN SHEIKH Mohamud 34.1%, Mohamed ABDULLAHI Mohamed \"Farmaajo\" 25.7%, Said ABDULLAHI DENI 21%, Hassan Ali KHAYRE 19.2%; Federal Parliament percent of vote in third round - HASSAN SHEIKH Mohamud 66%, Mohamed ABDULLAHI Mohamed \"Farmaajo\" 34%<br><br><em>2017:</em> Mohamed ABDULLAHI Mohamed \"Farmaajo\" elected president in second round; Federal Parliament number of votes in first round - HASSAN SHEIKH Mohamud (PDP) 88, Mohamed ABDULLAHI Mohamed \"Farmaajo\" (TPP) 72, Sheikh SHARIF Sheikh Ahmed (ARS) 49, other 37; Federal Parliament number of votes in second round - Mohamed ABDULLAHI Mohamed \"Farmaajo\" 184, HASSAN SHEIKH Mohamud 97, Sheikh SHARIF Sheikh Ahmed 45"
"note":"<strong>note:</strong> despite the formation of political parties in 2020, the 2021 parliamentary elections maintained a primarily clan-based system of appointments; seats in the legislature were apportioned to Somali member states and not by party representation <br><br><br><br><br>"
"text":"the provisional constitution stipulates the establishment of the Constitutional Court (consists of 5 judges, including the chief judge and deputy chief judge)"
"text":"judges appointed by the president on proposal of the Judicial Service Commission, a 9-member judicial and administrative body; judge tenure NA"
"note":"<strong>note:</strong> under the terms of the 2004 Transitional National Charter, a Supreme Court based in Mogadishu and the Appeal Court were established, but most regions have reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, whether secular, Somali customary law, or Islamic law"
"text":"Cosmopolitan Democratic Party<br>Green Party<br>Himilo Qaran Party<br>Ilays Party<br>Justice and Reconciliation Party<br>National Progressive Party<br>Peace and Unity Party<br>Qaransoor Party<br>Qiimo Qaran Party<br>Security and Justice Party<br>Social Justice Party<br>Somali Labour Party<br>Somali Republic Party<br>Somali Social Unity Party or SSUP<br>Union for Peace and Development Party or PDP<br>Wadajir Party",
"note":"<strong>note:</strong> in 2017 an independent electoral commission (the NIEC) was inaugurated with a mandate to oversee the process of registration of political parties in the country; as of 2021, the NIEC had registered a total of 110 parties"
"text":"1 July 1960 (from a merger of British Somaliland, which became independent from the UK on 26 June 1960, and Italian Somaliland, which became independent from the Italian-administered UN trusteeship on 1 July 1960 to form the Somali Republic)"
},
"National holiday":{
"text":"Foundation of the Somali Republic, 1 July (1960); note - 26 June (1960) in Somaliland"
"text":"light blue with a large white five-pointed star in the center; the blue field was originally influenced by the UN flag but today is said to represent the sky and the Indian Ocean; the five points of the star represent the regions in the horn of Africa where Somali people live: the former British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland (which together make up Somalia), Djibouti, Ogaden (Ethiopia), and the Northeast Province (Kenya)"
"text":"regional and local governing bodies continue to exist and control various areas of the country, including the self-declared Republic of Somaliland in northwestern Somalia"
"text":"low-income African Horn economy; 30 years of war and instability crippled economic potential; high remittances for basic survival; new fiscal federalism approach; cleared some unsustainable debt; environmentally fragile; digitally driven urbanization efforts"
"text":"2 private TV stations rebroadcast Al-Jazeera and CNN; 1 state-operated TV station and 1 private TV station; state-operated Radio Mogadishu; 1 SW and roughly 10 private FM radio stations in Mogadishu; several radio stations in central and southern regions; transmissions of at least 2 international broadcasters available (2019)"
"text":"Somali Armed Forces (SAF; aka Somali Defense Force): Somali National Army (SNA; aka Land Forces), Somali Navy, Somali Air Force<br><br>Ministry of Internal Security: Somali National Police (SNP, includes Coast Guard, commando unit) (2024)",
"note":"<strong>note 1:</strong> Somalia has numerous militia (\"ma’awisley\") and regional/state forces operating throughout the country; these forces include ones that are clan- and warlord-based, semi-official paramilitary and special police forces (\"darwish\"), and externally sponsored militias<br><br><strong>note 2: </strong>Somaliland and Puntland have separate military, security, and paramilitary forces"
"text":"the SNA's inventory is a mix of older, secondhand, and donated equipment from a variety of suppliers, including Italy, Russia, South Africa, Turkey, the UK, and the US (2024)"
"text":"18 is the legal minimum age for voluntary military service for men and women; conscription of men aged 18-40 and women aged 18-30 is authorized, but not currently utilized (2023)"
"text":"the Somali National Army (SNA) is a lightly armed force of more than a dozen brigades; its most effective units are assessed to be the US-trained Danab (\"Lightning\") Advanced Infantry Brigade and those of the Turkish-trained Gorgor (\"Eagle\") Special Division; SNA soldiers have also received training from Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, the EU, Uganda, and the UK; the SNA and supporting security and militia forces are actively conducting operations against the al-Shabaab terrorist group; al-Shabaab controls large parts of southern and central Somalia<br><br>the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) operated in the country with the approval of the UN from 2007-2022; its mission included assisting Somali forces in providing security for a stable political process, enabling the gradual handing over of security responsibilities from AMISOM to the Somali security forces, and reducing the threat posed by al-Shabaab and other armed opposition groups; in April 2022, AMISOM was reconfigured and replaced with the AU Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS); the ATMIS mission was to support the Somalia Federal Government (FGS) in implementing the security objectives of the FGS's security transition plan, a comprehensive strategy developed by the FGS and its international partners in 2018 and updated in 2021 to gradually transfer security responsibilities from ATMIS to Somali security forces; originally about 20,000-strong (civilians, military, and police), ATMIS began reducing its staffing levels in mid-2023 and ended its mission at the end of 2024; the follow-on force for ATMIS, the Support and Stabilization Mission in Somalia (AUSSOM) was formed in January 2025 and slated to have about 12,000 personnel, including soldiers, police and civilian support staff (2025)"
"note":"<strong>note:</strong> details about the history, aims, leadership, organization, areas of operation, tactics, targets, weapons, size, and sources of support of the group(s) appear(s) in the Terrorism reference guide"
"text":"3.864 million (civil war since 1988, clan-based competition for resources; famine; insecurity because of fighting between al-Shabaab and the Transitional Federal Government's allied forces) (2022)"
