factbook.json/middle-east/sy.json

{
  "Introduction": {
    "Background": {
      "text": "<p>Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The French administered the area as Syria until granting it independence in 1946. The new country lacked political stability and experienced a series of military coups. Syria united with Egypt in February 1958 to form the United Arab Republic. In September 1961, the two entities separated, and the Syrian Arab Republic was reestablished. In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lost the Golan Heights region to Israel. During the 1990s, Syria and Israel held occasional, albeit unsuccessful, peace talks over its return. In November 1970, Hafiz al-ASAD, a member of the socialist Ba'ath Party and the minority Alawi sect, seized power in a bloodless coup and brought political stability to the country. Following the death of President Hafiz al-ASAD, his son, Bashar al-ASAD, was approved as president by popular referendum in July 2000. Syrian troops - stationed in Lebanon since 1976 in an ostensible peacekeeping role - were withdrawn in April 2005. During the July-August 2006 conflict between Israel and Hizballah, Syria placed its military forces on alert but did not intervene directly on behalf of its ally Hizballah. In May 2007, Bashar al-ASAD's second term as president was approved by popular referendum.</p> <p>Influenced by major uprisings that began elsewhere in the region, and compounded by additional social and economic factors, antigovernment protests broke out first in the southern province of Dar'a in March 2011 with protesters calling for the repeal of the restrictive Emergency Law allowing arrests without charge, the legalization of political parties, and the removal of corrupt local officials. Demonstrations and violent unrest spread across Syria with the size and intensity of protests fluctuating. The government responded to unrest with a mix of concessions - including the repeal of the Emergency Law, new laws permitting new political parties, and liberalizing local and national elections - and with military force and detentions. The government's efforts to quell unrest and armed opposition activity led to extended clashes and eventually civil war between government forces, their allies, and oppositionists.</p> <p>International pressure on the ASAD regime intensified after late 2011, as the Arab League, the EU, Turkey, and the US expanded economic sanctions against the regime and those entities that support it. In December 2012, the Syrian National Coalition, was recognized by more than 130 countries as the sole legitimate representative of the Syrian people. In September 2015, Russia launched a military intervention on behalf of the ASAD regime, and domestic and foreign government-aligned forces recaptured swaths of territory from opposition forces, and eventually the country’s second largest city, Aleppo, in December 2016, shifting the conflict in the regime’s favor. With this foreign support, the regime also recaptured opposition strongholds in the Damascus suburbs and the southern province of Dar’a in 2018. The regime continued to periodically regain opposition held territory until early 2020 when Turkish firepower halted a regime advance and forced a stalemate between regime and opposition forces that has prevented any subsequent advances. The government lacks territorial control over much of the northeastern part of the country, which is dominated by the predominantly Kurdish Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), and a smaller area dominated by Turkey. The SDF expanded its territorial hold beyond its traditional homelands, subsuming much of the northeast since 2014 as it battled the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria. Since 2016, Turkey has been engaged in northern Syria and has conducted three large-scale military operations to capture territory along Syria's northern border in the provinces of Aleppo, Ar Raqqah, and Al Hasakah. Some opposition forces organized under the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army and Turkish forces have maintained control of northwestern Syria along 
    }
  },
  "Geography": {
    "Location": {
      "text": "Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Lebanon and Turkey"
    },
    "Geographic coordinates": {
      "text": "35 00 N, 38 00 E"
    },
    "Map references": {
      "text": "Middle East"
    },
    "Area": {
      "total": {
        "text": "187,437 sq km"
      },
      "land": {
        "text": "185,887 sq km"
      },
      "water": {
        "text": "1,550 sq km"
      },
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> includes 1,295 sq km of Israeli-occupied territory"
    },
    "Area - comparative": {
      "text": "slightly more than 1.5 times the size of Pennsylvania"
    },
    "Land boundaries": {
      "total": {
        "text": "2,363 km"
      },
      "border countries": {
        "text": "Iraq 599 km; Israel 83 km; Jordan 379 km; Lebanon 403 km; Turkey 899 km"
      }
    },
    "Coastline": {
      "text": "193 km"
    },
    "Maritime claims": {
      "territorial sea": {
        "text": "12 nm"
      },
      "contiguous zone": {
        "text": "24 nm"
      }
    },
    "Climate": {
      "text": "mostly desert; hot, dry, sunny summers (June to August) and mild, rainy winters (December to February) along coast; cold weather with snow or sleet periodically in Damascus"
    },
    "Terrain": {
      "text": "primarily semiarid and desert plateau; narrow coastal plain; mountains in west"
    },
    "Elevation": {
      "highest point": {
        "text": "Mount Hermon (Jabal a-Shayk) 2,814 m"
      },
      "lowest point": {
        "text": "Yarmuk River -66 m"
      },
      "mean elevation": {
        "text": "514 m"
      }
    },
    "Natural resources": {
      "text": "petroleum, phosphates, chrome and manganese ores, asphalt, iron ore, rock salt, marble, gypsum, hydropower"
    },
    "Land use": {
      "agricultural land": {
        "text": "75.8% (2018 est.)"
      },
      "agricultural land: arable land": {
        "text": "arable land: 25.4% (2018 est.)"
      },
      "agricultural land: permanent crops": {
        "text": "permanent crops: 5.8% (2018 est.)"
      },
      "agricultural land: permanent pasture": {
        "text": "permanent pasture: 44.6% (2018 est.)"
      },
      "forest": {
        "text": "2.7% (2018 est.)"
      },
      "other": {
        "text": "21.5% (2018 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Irrigated land": {
      "text": "13,100 sq km (2013)"
    },
    "Major rivers (by length in km)": {
      "text": "Euphrates (shared with Turkey [s], Iran, and Iraq [m]) - 3,596 km; Tigris (shared with Turkey, Iran, and Iraq [m]) - 1,950 km<br><strong>note</strong> – [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth"
    },
    "Major watersheds (area sq km)": {
      "text": "Indian Ocean drainage: <em>(Persian Gulf)</em> Tigris and Euphrates (918,044 sq km)"
    },
    "Population distribution": {
      "text": "significant population density along the Mediterranean coast; larger concentrations found in the major cities of Damascus, Aleppo (the country's largest city), and Hims (Homs); more than half of the population lives in the coastal plain, the province of Halab, and the Euphrates River valley",
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> the ongoing civil war has altered the population distribution"
    },
    "Natural hazards": {
      "text": "<p>dust storms, sandstorms</p><p><strong>volcanism:</strong> Syria's two historically active volcanoes, Es Safa and an unnamed volcano near the Turkish border have not erupted in centuries</p>"
    },
    "Geography - note": {
      "text": "the capital of Damascus - located at an oasis fed by the Barada River - is thought to be one of the world's oldest continuously inhabited cities; there are 42 Israeli settlements and civilian land use sites in the Israeli-controlled Golan Heights (2017)"
    }
  },
  "People and Society": {
    "Population": {
      "text": "22,933,531 (2023 est.)",
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> approximately 22,900 Israeli settlers live in the Golan Heights (2018)"
    },
    "Nationality": {
      "noun": {
        "text": "Syrian(s)"
      },
      "adjective": {
        "text": "Syrian"
      }
    },
    "Ethnic groups": {
      "text": "Arab ~50%, Alawite ~15%, Kurd ~10%, Levantine ~10%, other ~15% (includes Druze, Ismaili, Imami, Nusairi, Assyrian, Turkoman, Armenian)"
    },
    "Languages": {
      "Languages": {
        "text": "Arabic (official), Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic, Circassian, French, English"
      },
      "major-language sample(s)": {
        "text": "<br>كتاب حقائق العالم، المصدر الذي لا يمكن الاستغناء عنه للمعلومات الأساسية (Arabic)<br><br>ڕاستییەکانی جیهان، باشترین سەرچاوەیە بۆ زانیارییە بنەڕەتییەکان (Kurdish)<br><br>The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information."
      }
    },
    "Religions": {
      "text": "Muslim 87% (official; includes Sunni 74% and Alawi, Ismaili, and Shia 13%), Christian 10% (includes Orthodox, Uniate, and Nestorian), Druze 3%",
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong>  the Christian population may be considerably smaller as a result of Christians fleeing the country during the ongoing civil war"
    },
    "Age structure": {
      "0-14 years": {
        "text": "33.27% (male 3,914,737/female 3,716,362)"
      },
      "15-64 years": {
        "text": "62.58% (male 7,141,423/female 7,209,386)"
      },
      "65 years and over": {
        "text": "4.15% (2023 est.) (male 445,288/female 506,335)"
      }
    },
    "Dependency ratios": {
      "total dependency ratio": {
        "text": "55.4"
      },
      "youth dependency ratio": {
        "text": "53"
      },
      "elderly dependency ratio": {
        "text": "7.4"
      },
      "potential support ratio": {
        "text": "13.5 (2021 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Median age": {
      "total": {
        "text": "23.5 years"
      },
      "male": {
        "text": "23 years"
      },
      "female": {
        "text": "24 years (2020 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Population growth rate": {
      "text": "6.39% (2023 est.)"
    },
    "Birth rate": {
      "text": "22.19 births/1,000 population (2023 est.)"
    },
    "Death rate": {
      "text": "4.07 deaths/1,000 population (2023 est.)"
    },
    "Net migration rate": {
      "text": "45.78 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2023 est.) NA"
    },
    "Population distribution": {
      "text": "significant population density along the Mediterranean coast; larger concentrations found in the major cities of Damascus, Aleppo (the country's largest city), and Hims (Homs); more than half of the population lives in the coastal plain, the province of Halab, and the Euphrates River valley",
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> the ongoing civil war has altered the population distribution"
    },
    "Urbanization": {
      "urban population": {
        "text": "57.4% of total population (2023)"
      },
      "rate of urbanization": {
        "text": "5.38% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Major urban areas - population": {
      "text": "2.585 million DAMASCUS (capital), 2.203 million Aleppo, 1.443 million Hims (Homs), 996,000 Hamah (2023)"
    },
    "Sex ratio": {
      "at birth": {
        "text": "1.06 male(s)/female"
      },
      "0-14 years": {
        "text": "1.05 male(s)/female"
      },
      "15-64 years": {
        "text": "0.99 male(s)/female"
      },
      "65 years and over": {
        "text": "0.88 male(s)/female"
      },
      "total population": {
        "text": "1.01 male(s)/female (2023 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Maternal mortality ratio": {
      "text": "30 deaths/100,000 live births (2020 est.)"
    },
    "Infant mortality rate": {
      "total": {
        "text": "15.48 deaths/1,000 live births"
      },
      "male": {
        "text": "17.06 deaths/1,000 live births"
      },
      "female": {
        "text": "13.8 deaths/1,000 live births (2023 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Life expectancy at birth": {
      "total population": {
        "text": "74.55 years"
      },
      "male": {
        "text": "73.09 years"
      },
      "female": {
        "text": "76.1 years (2023 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Total fertility rate": {
      "text": "2.74 children born/woman (2023 est.)"
    },
    "Gross reproduction rate": {
      "text": "1.33 (2023 est.)"
    },
    "Contraceptive prevalence rate": {
      "text": "NA"
    },
    "Drinking water source": {
      "improved: urban": {
        "text": "urban: 99.6% of population"
      },
      "improved: rural": {
        "text": "rural: 100% of population"
      },
      "improved: total": {
        "text": "total: 99.8% of population"
      },
      "unimproved: urban": {
        "text": "urban: 0.4% of population"
      },
      "unimproved: rural": {
        "text": "rural: 0.7% of population"
      },
      "unimproved: total": {
        "text": "total: 0.2% of population (2020 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Current health expenditure": {
      "text": "NA"
    },
    "Physicians density": {
      "text": "1.29 physicians/1,000 population (2016)"
    },
    "Hospital bed density": {
      "text": "1.4 beds/1,000 population (2017)"
    },
    "Sanitation facility access": {
      "improved: urban": {
        "text": "urban: 99.5% of population"
      },
      "improved: rural": {
        "text": "rural: 99.5% of population"
      },
      "improved: total": {
        "text": "total: 99.5% of population"
      },
      "unimproved: urban": {
        "text": "urban: 0.5% of population"
      },
      "unimproved: rural": {
        "text": "rural: 0.5% of population"
      },
      "unimproved: total": {
        "text": "total: 0.5% of population (2020 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Obesity - adult prevalence rate": {
      "text": "27.8% (2016)"
    },
    "Alcohol consumption per capita": {
      "total": {
        "text": "0.13 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)"
      },
      "beer": {
        "text": "0.02 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)"
      },
      "wine": {
        "text": "0 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)"
      },
      "spirits": {
        "text": "0.11 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)"
      },
      "other alcohols": {
        "text": "0 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Children under the age of 5 years underweight": {
      "text": "NA"
    },
    "Currently married women (ages 15-49)": {
      "text": "52.6% (2023 est.)"
    },
    "Education expenditures": {
      "text": "NA"
    },
    "Literacy": {
      "definition": {
        "text": "age 15 and over can read and write"
      },
      "total population": {
        "text": "86.4%"
      },
      "male": {
        "text": "91.7%"
      },
      "female": {
        "text": "81% (2015)"
      }
    },
    "School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)": {
      "total": {
        "text": "9 years"
      },
      "male": {
        "text": "9 years"
      },
      "female": {
        "text": "9 years (2013)"
      }
    },
    "Youth unemployment rate (ages 15-24)": {
      "total": {
        "text": "26.2%"
      },
      "male": {
        "text": "21.6%"
      },
      "female": {
        "text": "51.1% (2021 est.)"
      }
    }
  },
  "Environment": {
    "Environment - current issues": {
      "text": "deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification; depletion of water resources; water pollution from raw sewage and petroleum refining wastes; inadequate potable water"
    },
    "Environment - international agreements": {
      "party to": {
        "text": "Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping-London Convention, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands"
      },
      "signed, but not ratified": {
        "text": "Environmental Modification"
      }
    },
    "Climate": {
      "text": "mostly desert; hot, dry, sunny summers (June to August) and mild, rainy winters (December to February) along coast; cold weather with snow or sleet periodically in Damascus"
    },
    "Land use": {
      "agricultural land": {
        "text": "75.8% (2018 est.)"
      },
      "agricultural land: arable land": {
        "text": "arable land: 25.4% (2018 est.)"
      },
      "agricultural land: permanent crops": {
        "text": "permanent crops: 5.8% (2018 est.)"
      },
      "agricultural land: permanent pasture": {
        "text": "permanent pasture: 44.6% (2018 est.)"
      },
      "forest": {
        "text": "2.7% (2018 est.)"
      },
      "other": {
        "text": "21.5% (2018 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Urbanization": {
      "urban population": {
        "text": "57.4% of total population (2023)"
      },
      "rate of urbanization": {
        "text": "5.38% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Food insecurity": {
      "exceptional shortfall in aggregate food production/supplies": {
        "text": "<em>due to civil conflict and economic crisis - </em>the latest available nationwide food security assessment estimated that about 12 million people, 60% of the overall population, were food insecure in 2021, a slight decline from 12.4 million in 2020, but 5 million more than at the end of 2019, mostly due to constrained livelihood opportunities and a rapidly worsening economy (2022)"
      }
    },
    "Air pollutants": {
      "particulate matter emissions": {
        "text": "39.43 micrograms per cubic meter (2016 est.)"
      },
      "carbon dioxide emissions": {
        "text": "28.83 megatons (2016 est.)"
      },
      "methane emissions": {
        "text": "12.93 megatons (2020 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Waste and recycling": {
      "municipal solid waste generated annually": {
        "text": "4.5 million tons (2009 est.)"
      },
      "municipal solid waste recycled annually": {
        "text": "112,500 tons (2010 est.)"
      },
      "percent of municipal solid waste recycled": {
        "text": "2.5% (2010 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Major rivers (by length in km)": {
      "text": "Euphrates (shared with Turkey [s], Iran, and Iraq [m]) - 3,596 km; Tigris (shared with Turkey, Iran, and Iraq [m]) - 1,950 km<br><strong>note</strong> – [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth"
    },
    "Major watersheds (area sq km)": {
      "text": "Indian Ocean drainage: <em>(Persian Gulf)</em> Tigris and Euphrates (918,044 sq km)"
    },
    "Total water withdrawal": {
      "municipal": {
        "text": "1.48 billion cubic meters (2020 est.)"
      },
      "industrial": {
        "text": "620 million cubic meters (2020 est.)"
      },
      "agricultural": {
        "text": "14.67 billion cubic meters (2020 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Total renewable water resources": {
      "text": "16.8 billion cubic meters (2020 est.)"
    }
  },
  "Government": {
    "Country name": {
      "conventional long form": {
        "text": "Syrian Arab Republic"
      },
      "conventional short form": {
        "text": "Syria"
      },
      "local long form": {
        "text": "Al Jumhuriyah al Arabiyah as Suriyah"
      },
      "local short form": {
        "text": "Suriyah"
      },
      "former": {
        "text": "United Arab Republic (with Egypt)"
      },
      "etymology": {
        "text": "name ultimately derived from the ancient Assyrians who dominated northern Mesopotamia, but whose reach also extended westward to the Levant; over time, the name came to be associated more with the western area"
      }
    },
    "Government type": {
      "text": "presidential republic; highly authoritarian regime"
    },
    "Capital": {
      "name": {
        "text": "Damascus"
      },
      "geographic coordinates": {
        "text": "33 30 N, 36 18 E"
      },
      "time difference": {
        "text": "UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)"
      },
      "daylight saving time": {
        "text": "+1hr, begins midnight on the last Friday in March; ends at midnight on the last Friday in October"
      },
      "etymology": {
        "text": "Damascus is a very old city; its earliest name, Temeseq, first appears in an Egyptian geographical list of the 15th century B.C., but the meaning is uncertain"
      }
    },
    "Administrative divisions": {
      "text": "14 provinces (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Al Hasakah, Al Ladhiqiyah (Latakia), Al Qunaytirah, Ar Raqqah, As Suwayda', Dar'a, Dayr az Zawr, Dimashq (Damascus), Halab (Aleppo), Hamah, Hims (Homs), Idlib, Rif Dimashq (Damascus Countryside), Tartus"
    },
    "Independence": {
      "text": "17 April 1946 (from League of Nations mandate under French administration)"
    },
    "National holiday": {
      "text": "Independence Day (Evacuation Day), 17 April (1946); note - celebrates the leaving of the last French troops and the proclamation of full independence"
    },
    "Constitution": {
      "history": {
        "text": "several previous; latest issued 15 February 2012, passed by referendum and effective 27 February 2012; note - UN-sponsored talks, which began in late 2019 between delegates from government and opposition forces to draft a new constitution; in March 2022, the 7th round of the Syrian Constitutional Committee ended in Geneva with no results"
      },
      "amendments": {
        "text": "proposed by the president of the republic or by one third of the People&rsquo;s Assembly members; following review by a special Assembly committee, passage requires at least three-quarters majority vote by the Assembly and approval by the president"
      }
    },
    "Legal system": {
      "text": "mixed legal system of civil and Islamic (sharia) law (for family courts)"
    },
    "International law organization participation": {
      "text": "has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; non-party state to the ICC"
    },
    "Citizenship": {
      "citizenship by birth": {
        "text": "no"
      },
      "citizenship by descent only": {
        "text": "the father must be a citizen of Syria; if the father is unknown or stateless, the mother must be a citizen of Syria"
      },
      "dual citizenship recognized": {
        "text": "yes"
      },
      "residency requirement for naturalization": {
        "text": "10 years"
      }
    },
    "Suffrage": {
      "text": "18 years of age; universal"
    },
    "Executive branch": {
      "chief of state": {
        "text": "President Bashar al-ASAD (since 17 July 2000); Vice President Najah al-ATTAR (since 23 March 2006)"
      },
      "head of government": {
        "text": "Prime Minister Hussein ARNOUS (since 30 August 2020); Deputy Prime Minister Ali Abdullah AYOUB (Lt. Gen.) (since 30 August 2020)"
      },
      "cabinet": {
        "text": "Council of Ministers appointed by the president"
      },
      "elections/appointments": {
        "text": "president directly elected by simple majority popular vote for a 7-year term (eligible for a second term); election last held on 26 May 2021 (next to be held in 2028); the president appoints the vice presidents, prime minister, and deputy prime ministers"
      },
      "election results": {
        "text": "<em>2021: </em>Bashar al-ASAD elected president; percent of vote - Bashar al-ASAD (Ba'th Party) 95.2%, Mahmoud Ahmad MAREI (Democratic Arab Socialist Union) 3.3%, Abdullah Sallum ABDULLAH (Socialist Unionist Party) 1.5%"
      }
    },
    "Legislative branch": {
      "description": {
        "text": "unicameral People's Assembly or Majlis al-Shaab (250 seats; members directly elected in multi-seat constituencies by simple majority preferential vote to serve 4-year terms)"
      },
      "elections": {
        "text": "last held on 19 July 2020 (next to be held in 2024)"
      },
      "election results": {
        "text": "percent of vote by party - NPF 80%, other 20%; seats by party - NPF 200, other 50; composition - men 222, women 28, percent of women 11.2%"
      }
    },
    "Judicial branch": {
      "highest court(s)": {
        "text": "Court of Cassation (organized into civil, criminal, religious, and military divisions, each with 3 judges); Supreme Constitutional Court (consists of 7 members)"
      },
      "judge selection and term of office": {
        "text": "Court of Cassation judges appointed by the Supreme Judicial Council (SJC), a judicial management body headed by the minister of justice with 7 members, including the national president; judge tenure NA; Supreme Constitutional Court judges nominated by the president and appointed by the SJC; judges serve 4-year renewable terms"
      },
      "subordinate courts": {
        "text": "courts of first instance; magistrates' courts; religious and military courts; Economic Security Court; Counterterrorism Court (established June 2012)"
      }
    },
    "Political parties and leaders": {
      "text": "<strong>legal parties/alliances:<br></strong> Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party [Bashar al-ASAD, regional secretary] <br>Arab Socialist Renaissance (Ba'th) Party [President Bashar al-ASAD] <br>Arab Socialist Union of Syria or ASU [Safwan al-QUDSI]<br>Democratic Arab Socialist Union [Hassan Abdul AZIM, general secretary] <br>National Progressive Front or NPF [Bashar al-ASAD, Suleiman QADDAH] (alliance includes Arab Socialist Renaissance (Ba'th) Party, Socialist Unionist Democratic Party)<br>Socialist Unionist Party [Fayiz ISMAIL]<br>Socialist Unionist Democratic Party [Fadlallah Nasr al-DIN]<br>Syrian Communist Party (two branches) [Wissal Farha BAKDASH, Yusuf Rashid FAYSAL] <br>Syrian Social Nationalist Party or SSNP [Ali HAIDAR]<br>Unionist Socialist Party [Fayez ISMAIL]<br><strong><br>major Kurdish political organizations:<br></strong>Kurdish Democratic Union Party or PYD [Saleh MUSLIM, Asia ABDULLAH]<br>Kurdish National Council or KNC [Sa'ud MALA]<br>Self-Administration of Northeast Syria or SANES [Abd Hamid al-MAHBASH] <br>Syrian Democratic Council or SDC [Ilham AHMAD]<br><br><strong>other:<br></strong>Syrian Democratic Party [Mustafa QALAAJI]"
    },
    "International organization participation": {
      "text": "ABEDA, AFESD, AMF, CAEU, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (national committees), ICRM, ICSID, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WBG, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO (observer)"
    },
    "Diplomatic representation in the US": {
      "chief of mission": {
        "text": "Ambassador (vacant); note &ndash; embassy closed on 18 March 2014"
      },
      "chancery": {
        "text": "2215 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008; note &ndash; embassy closed on 18 March 2014"
      }
    },
    "Diplomatic representation from the US": {
      "chief of mission": {
        "text": "Ambassador (vacant); note - on 6 February 2012, the US closed its embassy in Damascus; Czechia serves as a protecting power for US interests in Syria"
      },
      "mailing address": {
        "text": "6110 Damascus Place, Washington DC&nbsp; 20521-6110"
      },
      "email address and website": {
        "text": "<br>USIS_damascus@embassy.mzv.cz<br><br>https://sy.usembassy.gov/"
      }
    },
    "Flag description": {
      "text": "three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; two small, green, five-pointed stars in a horizontal line centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white); identical to the former flag of the United Arab Republic (1958-1961) where the two stars represented the constituent states of Syria and Egypt; the current design dates to 1980",
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> similar to the flag of Yemen, which has a plain white band; Iraq, which has an Arabic inscription centered in the white band; and that of Egypt, which has a gold Eagle of Saladin centered in the white band"
    },
    "National symbol(s)": {
      "text": "hawk; national colors: red, white, black, green"
    },
    "National anthem": {
      "name": {
        "text": "\"Humat ad-Diyar\" (Guardians of the Homeland)"
      },
      "lyrics/music": {
        "text": "Khalil Mardam BEY/Mohammad Salim FLAYFEL and Ahmad Salim FLAYFEL"
      },
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> adopted 1936, restored 1961; between 1958 and 1961, while Syria was a member of the United Arab Republic with Egypt, the country had a different anthem"
    },
    "National heritage": {
      "total World Heritage Sites": {
        "text": "6 (all cultural)"
      },
      "selected World Heritage Site locales": {
        "text": "Ancient City of Damascus; Ancient City of Bosra; Site of Palmyra; Ancient City of Aleppo; Crac des Chevaliers and Qal&rsquo;at Salah El-Din; Ancient Villages of Northern Syria"
      }
    }
  },
  "Economy": {
    "Economic overview": {
      "text": "low-income Middle Eastern economy; prior infrastructure and economy devastated by 11-year civil war; ongoing US sanctions; sporadic trans-migration during conflict; currently being supported by World Bank trust fund; ongoing hyperinflation"
    },
    "Real GDP (purchasing power parity)": {
      "Real GDP (purchasing power parity) 2015": {
        "text": "$50.28 billion (2015 est.)"
      },
      "Real GDP (purchasing power parity) 2014": {
        "text": "$55.8 billion (2014 est.)"
      },
      "Real GDP (purchasing power parity) 2013": {
        "text": "$61.9 billion (2013 est.)"
      },
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> data are in 2015 US dollars<br>the war-driven deterioration of the economy resulted in a disappearance of quality national level statistics in the 2012-13 period"
    },
    "Real GDP growth rate": {
      "Real GDP growth rate 2020": {
        "text": "-3.87% (2020 est.)"
      },
      "Real GDP growth rate 2019": {
        "text": "1.22% (2019 est.)"
      },
      "Real GDP growth rate 2018": {
        "text": "1.39% (2018 est.)"
      },
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> data are in 2015 dollars"
    },
    "Real GDP per capita": {
      "Real GDP per capita 2015": {
        "text": "$2,900 (2015 est.)"
      },
      "Real GDP per capita 2014": {
        "text": "$3,300 (2014 est.)"
      },
      "Real GDP per capita 2013": {
        "text": "$2,800 (2013 est.)"
      },
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> data are in 2015 US dollars"
    },
    "GDP (official exchange rate)": {
      "text": "$24.6 billion (2014 est.)"
    },
    "Inflation rate (consumer prices)": {
      "Inflation rate (consumer prices) 2017": {
        "text": "28.1% (2017 est.)"
      },
      "Inflation rate (consumer prices) 2016": {
        "text": "47.3% (2016 est.)"
      }
    },
    "GDP - composition, by sector of origin": {
      "agriculture": {
        "text": "20% (2017 est.)"
      },
      "industry": {
        "text": "19.5% (2017 est.)"
      },
      "services": {
        "text": "60.8% (2017 est.)"
      }
    },
    "GDP - composition, by end use": {
      "household consumption": {
        "text": "73.1% (2017 est.)"
      },
      "government consumption": {
        "text": "26% (2017 est.)"
      },
      "investment in fixed capital": {
        "text": "18.6% (2017 est.)"
      },
      "investment in inventories": {
        "text": "12.3% (2017 est.)"
      },
      "exports of goods and services": {
        "text": "16.1% (2017 est.)"
      },
      "imports of goods and services": {
        "text": "-46.1% (2017 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Agricultural products": {
      "text": "wheat, barley, milk, olives, tomatoes, oranges, potatoes, sheep milk, lemons, limes"
    },
    "Industries": {
      "text": "petroleum, textiles, food processing, beverages, tobacco, phosphate rock mining, cement, oil seeds crushing, automobile assembly"
    },
    "Industrial production growth rate": {
      "text": "-14.77% (2020 est.)"
    },
    "Labor force": {
      "text": "6.143 million (2021 est.)"
    },
    "Labor force - by occupation": {
      "agriculture": {
        "text": "17%"
      },
      "industry": {
        "text": "16%"
      },
      "services": {
        "text": "67% (2008 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Unemployment rate": {
      "Unemployment rate 2021": {
        "text": "10.57% (2021 est.)"
      },
      "Unemployment rate 2020": {
        "text": "10.26% (2020 est.)"
      },
      "Unemployment rate 2019": {
        "text": "8.77% (2019 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Youth unemployment rate (ages 15-24)": {
      "total": {
        "text": "26.2%"
      },
      "male": {
        "text": "21.6%"
      },
      "female": {
        "text": "51.1% (2021 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Population below poverty line": {
      "text": "82.5% (2014 est.)"
    },
    "Household income or consumption by percentage share": {
      "lowest 10%": {
        "text": "NA"
      },
      "highest 10%": {
        "text": "NA"
      }
    },
    "Budget": {
      "revenues": {
        "text": "$1.162 billion (2017 est.)"
      },
      "expenditures": {
        "text": "$3.211 billion (2017 est.)"
      },
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> government projections for FY2016"
    },
    "Budget surplus (+) or deficit (-)": {
      "text": "-8.7% (of GDP) (2017 est.)"
    },
    "Public debt": {
      "Public debt 2017": {
        "text": "94.8% of GDP (2017 est.)"
      },
      "Public debt 2016": {
        "text": "91.3% of GDP (2016 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Taxes and other revenues": {
      "text": "4.2% (of GDP) (2017 est.)"
    },
    "Fiscal year": {
      "text": "calendar year"
    },
    "Current account balance": {
      "Current account balance 2017": {
        "text": "-$2.123 billion (2017 est.)"
      },
      "Current account balance 2016": {
        "text": "-$2.077 billion (2016 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Exports": {
      "Exports 2017": {
        "text": "$1.85 billion (2017 est.)"
      },
      "Exports 2016": {
        "text": "$1.705 billion (2016 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Exports - partners": {
      "text": "Saudi Arabia 23%, Turkey 18%, Egypt 14%, United Arab Emirates 8%, Jordan 7%, Kuwait 5% (2019)"
    },
    "Exports - commodities": {
      "text": "olive oil, cumin seeds, pistachios, tomatoes, apples, pears, spices, pitted fruits (2019)"
    },
    "Imports": {
      "Imports 2017": {
        "text": "$6.279 billion (2017 est.)"
      },
      "Imports 2016": {
        "text": "$5.496 billion (2016 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Imports - partners": {
      "text": "Turkey 27%, China 22%, United Arab Emirates 14%, Egypt 5% (2019)"
    },
    "Imports - commodities": {
      "text": "cigarettes, broadcasting equipment, wheat flours, sunflower oil, refined petroleum (2019)"
    },
    "Reserves of foreign exchange and gold": {
      "Reserves of foreign exchange and gold 31 December 2017": {
        "text": "$407.3 million (31 December 2017 est.)"
      },
      "Reserves of foreign exchange and gold 31 December 2016": {
        "text": "$504.6 million (31 December 2016 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Debt - external": {
      "Debt - external 31 December 2017": {
        "text": "$4.989 billion (31 December 2017 est.)"
      },
      "Debt - external 31 December 2016": {
        "text": "$5.085 billion (31 December 2016 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Exchange rates": {
      "Currency": {
        "text": "Syrian pounds (SYP) per US dollar -"
      },
      "Exchange rates 2017": {
        "text": "514.6 (2017 est.)"
      },
      "Exchange rates 2016": {
        "text": "459.2 (2016 est.)"
      },
      "Exchange rates 2015": {
        "text": "459.2 (2015 est.)"
      },
      "Exchange rates 2014": {
        "text": "236.41 (2014 est.)"
      },
      "Exchange rates 2013": {
        "text": "153.695 (2013 est.)"
      }
    }
  },
  "Energy": {
    "Electricity access": {
      "population without electricity": {
        "text": "(2020) 2 million"
      },
      "electrification - total population": {
        "text": "88.8% (2021)"
      },
      "electrification - urban areas": {
        "text": "100% (2021)"
      },
      "electrification - rural areas": {
        "text": "74.5% (2021)"
      }
    },
    "Electricity": {
      "installed generating capacity": {
        "text": "10.082 million kW (2020 est.)"
      },
      "consumption": {
        "text": "13,071,080,000 kWh (2019 est.)"
      },
      "exports": {
        "text": "347 million kWh (2019 est.)"
      },
      "imports": {
        "text": "0 kWh (2019 est.)"
      },
      "transmission/distribution losses": {
        "text": "3.687 billion kWh (2019 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Electricity generation sources": {
      "fossil fuels": {
        "text": "95.1% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)"
      },
      "nuclear": {
        "text": "0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)"
      },
      "solar": {
        "text": "0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)"
      },
      "wind": {
        "text": "0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)"
      },
      "hydroelectricity": {
        "text": "4.8% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)"
      },
      "tide and wave": {
        "text": "0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)"
      },
      "geothermal": {
        "text": "0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)"
      },
      "biomass and waste": {
        "text": "0.2% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Coal": {
      "production": {
        "text": "0 metric tons (2020 est.)"
      },
      "consumption": {
        "text": "38,000 metric tons (2020 est.)"
      },
      "exports": {
        "text": "0 metric tons (2020 est.)"
      },
      "imports": {
        "text": "38,000 metric tons (2020 est.)"
      },
      "proven reserves": {
        "text": "0 metric tons (2019 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Petroleum": {
      "total petroleum production": {
        "text": "80,800 bbl/day (2021 est.)"
      },
      "refined petroleum consumption": {
        "text": "137,900 bbl/day (2019 est.)"
      },
      "crude oil and lease condensate exports": {
        "text": "0 bbl/day (2018 est.)"
      },
      "crude oil and lease condensate imports": {
        "text": "129,100 bbl/day (2018 est.)"
      },
      "crude oil estimated reserves": {
        "text": "2.5 billion barrels (2021 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Refined petroleum products - production": {
      "text": "111,600 bbl/day (2015 est.)"
    },
    "Refined petroleum products - exports": {
      "text": "12,520 bbl/day (2015 est.)"
    },
    "Refined petroleum products - imports": {
      "text": "38,080 bbl/day (2015 est.)"
    },
    "Natural gas": {
      "production": {
        "text": "3,531,077,000 cubic meters (2019 est.)"
      },
      "consumption": {
        "text": "3,531,077,000 cubic meters (2019 est.)"
      },
      "exports": {
        "text": "0 cubic meters (2021 est.)"
      },
      "imports": {
        "text": "0 cubic meters (2020 est.)"
      },
      "proven reserves": {
        "text": "240.693 billion cubic meters (2021 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Carbon dioxide emissions": {
      "total emissions": {
        "text": "26.893 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)"
      },
      "from coal and metallurgical coke": {
        "text": "46,000 metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)"
      },
      "from petroleum and other liquids": {
        "text": "19.92 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)"
      },
      "from consumed natural gas": {
        "text": "6.927 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Energy consumption per capita": {
      "Total energy consumption per capita 2019": {
        "text": "24.567 million Btu/person (2019 est.)"
      }
    }
  },
  "Communications": {
    "Telephones - fixed lines": {
      "total subscriptions": {
        "text": "2,821,171 (2021 est.)"
      },
      "subscriptions per 100 inhabitants": {
        "text": "13 (2021 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Telephones - mobile cellular": {
      "total subscriptions": {
        "text": "16,990,714 (2021 est.)"
      },
      "subscriptions per 100 inhabitants": {
        "text": "80 (2021 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Telecommunication systems": {
      "general assessment": {
        "text": "the years of civil war and destruction to infrastructure continue to have a toll on the telecoms sector in Syria; although over the years the major mobile service providers have endeavored to restore and rebuild damaged networks, the operating environment has been difficult; following disputed demands for back taxes, MTN Group in August 2021 exited the country, after its majority stake had been transferred to judicial guardianship; this effectively meant that the mobile market became a monopoly; in February 2022 the regulator awarded a third mobile license following a process which had been ongoing for many years; telecommunication services in Syria are highly regulated; although urban areas can make use of the network built and maintained by the government-owned incumbent, many under served remote areas in the countryside are obliged to rely on satellite communications; the domestic and international fixed-line markets in Syria remain the monopoly of the STE, despite several initiatives over the years aimed at liberalizing the market; mobile broadband penetration in Syria is still quite low, despite quite a high population coverage of 3G networks and some deployment of LTE infrastructure; this may provide potential opportunities for growth once infrastructure and economic reconstruction efforts make headway, and civil issues subside (2022)"
      },
      "domestic": {
        "text": "the number of fixed-line connections is 13 per 100; mobile-cellular service is 80 per 100 persons (2021)"
      },
      "international": {
        "text": "country code - 963; landing points for the Aletar, BERYTAR and UGART submarine cable connections to Egypt, Lebanon, and Cyprus; satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey; participant in Medarabtel (2019)"
      }
    },
    "Broadcast media": {
      "text": "state-run TV and radio broadcast networks;&nbsp;state operates 2 TV networks and&nbsp;5 satellite channels; roughly two-thirds of Syrian homes have a satellite dish providing access to foreign TV broadcasts; 3 state-run radio channels; first private radio station launched in 2005; private radio broadcasters prohibited from transmitting news or political content (2018)"
    },
    "Internet country code": {
      "text": ".sy"
    },
    "Internet users": {
      "total": {
        "text": "8,492,468 (2022 est.)"
      },
      "percent of population": {
        "text": "46.6% (2022 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Broadband - fixed subscriptions": {
      "total": {
        "text": "1,549,356 (2020 est.)"
      },
      "subscriptions per 100 inhabitants": {
        "text": "9 (2020 est.)"
      }
    }
  },
  "Transportation": {
    "National air transport system": {
      "number of registered air carriers": {
        "text": "3 (2020)"
      },
      "inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers": {
        "text": "11"
      },
      "annual passenger traffic on registered air carriers": {
        "text": "17,896 (2018)"
      },
      "annual freight traffic on registered air carriers": {
        "text": "30,000 (2018) mt-km"
      }
    },
    "Civil aircraft registration country code prefix": {
      "text": "YK"
    },
    "Airports": {
      "text": "90 (2021)"
    },
    "Airports - with paved runways": {
      "text": "29",
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> paved runways have a concrete or asphalt surface but not all have facilities for refueling, maintenance, or air traffic control; the length of a runway required for aircraft to safely operate depends on a number of factors including the type of aircraft, the takeoff weight (including passengers, cargo, and fuel), engine types, flap settings, landing speed, elevation of the airport, and average maximum daily air temperature; paved runways can reach a length of 5,000 m (16,000 ft.), but the “typical” length of a commercial airline runway is between 2,500-4,000 m (8,000-13,000 ft.)"
    },
    "Airports - with unpaved runways": {
      "text": "61",
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> unpaved runways have a surface composition such as grass or packed earth and are most suited to the operation of light aircraft; unpaved runways are usually short, often less than 1,000 m (3,280 ft.) in length; airports with unpaved runways often lack facilities for refueling, maintenance, or air traffic control"
    },
    "Heliports": {
      "text": "6 (2021)"
    },
    "Pipelines": {
      "text": "3,170 km gas, 2029 km oil (2013)"
    },
    "Railways": {
      "total": {
        "text": "2,052 km (2014)"
      },
      "standard gauge": {
        "text": "1,801 km (2014) 1.435-m gauge"
      },
      "narrow gauge": {
        "text": "251 km (2014) 1.050-m gauge"
      }
    },
    "Roadways": {
      "total": {
        "text": "69,873 km (2010)"
      },
      "paved": {
        "text": "63,060 km (2010)"
      },
      "unpaved": {
        "text": "6,813 km (2010)"
      }
    },
    "Waterways": {
      "text": "900 km (2011) (navigable but not economically significant)"
    },
    "Merchant marine": {
      "total": {
        "text": "22"
      },
      "by type": {
        "text": "bulk carrier 1, general cargo 8, other 13 (2022)"
      }
    },
    "Ports and terminals": {
      "major seaport(s)": {
        "text": "Baniyas, Latakia, Tartus"
      }
    }
  },
  "Military and Security": {
    "Military and security forces": {
      "text": "Syrian Armed Forces: Syrian Arab Army (includes Republican Guard), Syrian Naval Forces, Syrian Air Forces, Syrian Air Defense Forces, National Defense Forces (NDF) and Local Defense Forces (LDF) (2022)",
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> NDF and LDF are pro-government militia and auxiliary forces; some militia and auxiliary forces are Iranian-backed; the Syrian military is also supported by the Russian armed forces, the Iran-affiliated Hizballah terrorist group, and Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps"
    },
    "Military expenditures": {
      "Military Expenditures 2019": {
        "text": "6.5% of GDP (2019 est.)"
      },
      "Military Expenditures 2018": {
        "text": "6.7% of GDP (2018 est.)"
      },
      "Military Expenditures 2017": {
        "text": "6.8% of GDP (2017 est.)"
      },
      "Military Expenditures 2016": {
        "text": "6.9% of GDP (2016 est.)"
      },
      "Military Expenditures 2015": {
        "text": "7.2% of GDP (2015 est.)"
      }
    },
    "Military and security service personnel strengths": {
      "text": "current estimates not available; since the start of the civil war in 2011, the Syrian Armed Forces (SAF) have taken significant losses in personnel due to casualties and desertions; prior to the civil war, the SAF had approximately 300,000 active duty troops, including 200-225,000 Army, plus about 300,000 reserve forces (2022)",
      "note": "<strong>note: </strong>pro-government militia and auxiliary forces probably number in the tens of thousands"
    },
    "Military equipment inventories and acquisitions": {
      "text": "the SAF's inventory is comprised mostly of Russian and Soviet-era equipment; in recent years, Russia has supplied the majority of Syria's weapons systems, although China and Iran have also provided military equipment (2022)"
    },
    "Military service age and obligation": {
      "text": "18-42 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military service; conscript service obligation is 18 months; women are not conscripted but may volunteer to serve (2022)",
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> the military is comprised largely of conscripts"
    },
    "Military - note": {
      "text": "the UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) has operated in the Golan between Israel and Syria since 1974 to monitor the ceasefire following the 1973 Arab-Israeli War and supervise the areas of separation between the two countries; UNDOF has about 1,000 personnel <br><br>multiple actors are conducting military operations in Syria in support of the ASAD government or Syrian opposition forces, as well in pursuit of their own security goals, such counterterrorism; operations have included air strikes, direct ground combat, and sponsoring proxy forces, as well as providing non-lethal military support, including advisors, technicians, arms and equipment, funding, intelligence, and training:<br><br><strong>pro-ASAD elements</strong> operating in Syria have included<strong> the Syrian Arab Army, Lebanese Hizbollah, Iranian, Iranian-backed Shia militia, and Russian forces</strong>; since early in the civil war, the ASAD government has relied on Lebanese Hizballah (see Appendix T for further information), as well as Iran and Iranian-backed irregular forces, for combat operations and to hold territory; since 2011, Iran has provided military advisors and combat troops from the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps (including the Qods Force; see Appendix T for further information), as well as intelligence, logistical, material, technical, and financial support; it has funded, trained, equipped, and led Shia militia/paramilitary units comprised of both Syrian and non-Syrian personnel, primarily from Afghanistan, Iraq, and Pakistan; Russia intervened at the request of the ASAD government in 2015 and has since provided air support, special operations forces, military advisors, private military contractors, training, arms, and equipment; Iranian and Russian support has also included assisting Syria in combating the Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham (ISIS; see Appendix T) terrorist group<br><br><strong>Turkey </strong>has intervened militarily several times since 2016 to combat Kurdish militants and ISIS, support select Syrian opposition forces, and establish a buffer along portions of its border with Syria; Turkey continues to maintain a considerable military presence in northern Syria; it has armed and trained militia/proxy forces, such as the Syrian National Army, which was formed in late 2017 of Syrian Arab and Turkmen rebel factions in the Halab (Aleppo) province and northwestern Syria<br><br>the <strong>US and some regional and European states</strong> have at times backed Syrian opposition forces militarily and/or conducted military operations, primarily against ISIS; the US has operated in Syria since 2015 with ground forces and air strikes; the majority the US ground forces are deployed in the Eastern Syria Security Area (ESSA, which includes parts of Hasakah and Dayr az Zawr provinces east of the Euphrates River) in support of operations by the Syrian Democratic Forces against ISIS, while the remainder are in southeast Syria around At Tanf supporting counter-ISIS operations by the Syrian Free Army opposition force; the US has also conducted air strikes against Syrian military targets in response to Syrian Government use of chemical weapons against opposition forces and civilians; in addition, France, Jordan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UK have provided forms of military assistance to opposition forces and/or conducted operations against ISIS, including air strikes<br><br><strong>Israel</strong> has conducted hundreds of military air strikes in Syria against Syrian military, Hizbollah, Iranian, and/or Iranian-backed militia targets<br><br>the<strong> Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF)</strong>, a coalition of forces composed primarily of Kurdish, Sunni Arab, and Syriac Christian fighters; it is dominated and led by Kurdish forces, particularly the People’s Protection Units (YPG) militia; the SDF began to receive US support in 2015 and as of 2023 was the main local US partner in its counter-ISIS campaign; the SDF has internal security, counterterrorism, and commando units; Turkey views the SDF as an extension of the 
    }
  },
  "Terrorism": {
    "Terrorist group(s)": {
      "text": "Abdallah Azzam Brigades; Ansar al-Islam; Asa’ib Ahl Al-Haq; Hizballah; Hurras al-Din; Islamic Jihad Union; Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC)/Qods Force; Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham (ISIS); Kata'ib Hizballah; Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK); Mujahidin Shura Council in the Environs of Jerusalem; al-Nusrah Front (Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham); al-Qa'ida; Palestine Liberation Front; Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP); PFLP-General Command",
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> details about the history, aims, leadership, organization, areas of operation, tactics, targets, weapons, size, and sources of support of the group(s) appear(s) in Appendix-T"
    }
  },
  "Transnational Issues": {
    "Disputes - international": {
      "text": "<p><em>Syria-Iraq</em>: none identified</p> <p><em>Syria-Israel</em>: Golan Heights is Israeli-controlled with UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) patrolling a buffer zone since 1974; because of ceasefire violations and increased military activity in the Golan Heights, the UN Security Council continues to extend UNDOF’s mandate; since 2000, Lebanon has claimed Shab'a Farms in the Golan Heights</p> <p><em>Syria-Jordan</em>: the two countries signed an agreement in 2005 to settle the border dispute based on a 1931 demarcation accord; the two countries began demarcation in 2006</p> <p><em>Syria-Lebanon</em>: discussions on demarcating the two countries’ maritime borders were held in April 2021, after Syria signed a contract with a Russian company to conduct oil and gas exploration in a disputed maritime area, but the issue was not resolved</p> <p><em>Syria-Turkey</em>: none identified</p>"
    },
    "Refugees and internally displaced persons": {
      "refugees (country of origin)": {
        "text": "580,000 (Palestinian Refugees) (2022); 11,121 (Iraq) (mid-year 2022)"
      },
      "IDPs": {
        "text": "6.75 million (ongoing civil war since 2011) (2022)"
      },
      "stateless persons": {
        "text": "160,000 (2022); note - Syria's stateless population consists of Kurds and Palestinians; stateless persons are prevented from voting, owning land, holding certain jobs, receiving food subsidies or public healthcare, enrolling in public schools, or being legally married to Syrian citizens; in 1962, some 120,000 Syrian Kurds were stripped of their Syrian citizenship, rendering them and their descendants stateless; in 2011, the Syrian Government granted citizenship to thousands of Syrian Kurds as a means of appeasement; however, resolving the question of statelessness is not a priority given Syria's ongoing civil war"
      },
      "note": "<strong>note:</strong> the ongoing civil war has resulted in almost 5.3 million registered Syrian refugees - dispersed mainly in Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey - as of June 2023"
    },
    "Trafficking in persons": {
      "tier rating": {
        "text": "Tier 3 &mdash; Syria does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so, therefore Syria remained on Tier 3; during the reporting period, there was a government policy or pattern of human trafficking and employing or recruiting child soldiers; Syrians were exploited in forced labor under compulsory military service for indefinite periods under threat of torture, familial reprisal, or death; the government did not hold any traffickers criminally accountable nor identify or protect any victims; government and pro-Syrian militias continued to forcibly recruit and use child soldiers; the government did not prevent armed opposition forces and designated terrorist organizations from recruiting children; authorities continued to arrest, detain, and severely abuse trafficking victims, including child soldiers, and punished them for unlawful acts traffickers compelled them to commit (2022)"
      },
      "trafficking profile": {
        "text": "human traffickers exploit domestic and foreign victims in Syria, as well as Syrians abroad; more than half of Syria&rsquo;s pre-war population of 23 million have been internally displaced or are refugees in other countries and extremely vulnerable to traffickers; children are vulnerable to forced marriages, sexual slavery, and forced labor; armed groups, community members, and criminal gangs exploit women, girls, and boys in Syria in sex trafficking; Syrian government forces, pro-regime militias, and opposition forces use Syrian children in combat and support roles and as human shields; foreign domestic workers from Southeast Asian countries are subject to forced labor; terrorist groups reportedly force, coerce, or fraudulently recruit foreigners, including migrants from Central Asia and Western and other women, who are vulnerable to forced labor and sex trafficking; Syrian refugees in neighboring countries, particularly Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq, and Turkey, are highly vulnerable to sex trafficking and forced labor (2022)"
      }
    },
    "Illicit drugs": {
      "text": "<p>increasing drug trafficking particularly the synthetic stimulant captagon, a mixture of various amphetamines, methamphetamine, and/or other stimulants;  drug smuggling of captagon and other stimulants linked to the Syrian government and Hizballah</p>"
    }
  }
}