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{
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"Introduction": {
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"Background": {
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"text": "A large body of recent oceanographic research has shown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), an ocean current that flows from west to east around Antarctica, plays a crucial role in global ocean circulation. The region where the cold waters of the ACC meet and mingle with the warmer waters of the north defines a distinct border - the Antarctic Convergence - which fluctuates with the seasons, but which encompasses a discrete body of water and a unique ecologic region. The Convergence concentrates nutrients, which promotes marine plant life, and which, in turn, allows for a greater abundance of animal life. In 2000, the International Hydrographic Organization delimited the waters within the Convergence as a fifth world ocean basin - the Southern Ocean - by combining the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extends from the coast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude, which coincides with the Antarctic Treaty region and which approximates the extent of the Antarctic Convergence. As such, the Southern Ocean is now the fourth largest of the world's five ocean basins (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the Arctic Ocean). It should be noted that inclusion of the Southern Ocean does not imply recognition of this feature as one of the world's primary ocean basins by the US Government."
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"text": "A large body of recent oceanographic research has shown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), an ocean current that flows from west to east around Antarctica, plays a crucial role in global ocean circulation. The region where the cold waters of the ACC meet and mingle with the warmer waters of the north defines a distinct border -- the Antarctic Convergence -- which fluctuates with the seasons but encompasses a discrete body of water and a unique ecologic region. The Convergence concentrates nutrients, which promotes marine plant life, which in turn allows for a greater abundance of animal life. In 2000, the International Hydrographic Organization delimited the waters within the Convergence as a fifth world ocean basin -- the Southern Ocean -- by combining the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extends from the coast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude, which coincides with the Antarctic Treaty region and which approximates the extent of the Antarctic Convergence. As such, the Southern Ocean is now the fourth largest of the world's five ocean basins (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean). It should be noted that inclusion of the Southern Ocean does not imply US Government recognition of this feature as one of the world's primary ocean basins."
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}
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},
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"Geography": {
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"Economy": {
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},
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"Transportation": {
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"Ports and terminals": {
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"major seaport(s)": {
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"text": "McMurdo, Palmer, and offshore anchorages in Antarctica"
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},
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"note": "<strong>note:</strong> few ports or harbors exist on the southern side of the Southern Ocean; ice conditions limit use of most to short periods in midsummer; even then some cannot be entered without icebreaker escort; most Antarctic ports are operated by government research stations and, except in an emergency, are not open to commercial or private vessels"
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},
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"Transportation - note": {
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"text": "Drake Passage offers alternative to transit through the Panama Canal"
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}
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"Economy": {
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},
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"Transportation": {
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"Ports and terminals": {
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"major seaport(s)": {
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"text": "Chennai (Madras, India); Colombo (Sri Lanka); Durban (South Africa); Jakarta (Indonesia); Kolkata (Calcutta, India); Melbourne (Australia); Mumbai (Bombay, India); Richards Bay (South Africa)"
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}
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}
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},
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"Military and Security": {
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"Military - note": {
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"Icebreakers": {
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"text": "Norway: one PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreaker, and one PC 5 or 6 class light icebreaker<br>Russia: seven PC 1 or 2 class heavy icebreakers, eight PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreakers, and three PC 5 or 6 class light icebreakers<br><br><strong>note:</strong> the ships are listed by Polar Class (PC) vessel: PC 1 - year-round operation in all polar waters (ice thickness >3 m); PC 2 - year-round operation in moderate multi-year ice conditions (ice thickness up to 3 m); PC 3 - year-round operation in second-year ice which may include multi-year ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 2.5 m); PC 4 - year-round operation in thick first-year ice which may include old ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 120 cm); PC 5 - year-round operation in medium first-year ice which may include old ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 70-120 cm); PC 6 - summer/autumn operation in medium first-year ice which may include old ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 30-70 cm)"
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},
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"Ports and terminals": {
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"major seaport(s)": {
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"text": "Churchill (Canada), Murmansk (Russia), Prudhoe Bay (US)"
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}
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},
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"Transportation - note": {
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"text": "sparse network of air, ocean, river, and land routes; the Northwest Passage (North America) and Northern Sea Route (Eurasia) are important seasonal waterways"
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}
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"Icebreakers": {
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"text": "<em>North Atlantic</em><br>Canada: one PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreaker<br>France: one PC 5 or 6 class light icebreaker<br>Germany: one PC 5 or 6 class light icebreaker<br>US: one PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreaker, and one PC 5 or 6 class light icebreaker<br><em>Baltic</em><br>Denmark: three PC 5 or 6 class light icebreakers<br>Estonia: two PC 5 or 6 class light icebreakers<br>Finland: seven PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreakers, and two PC 5 or 6 class light icebreakers<br>Latvia: one PC 5 or 6 class light icebreaker<br>Russia: 22 PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreakers, and five PC 5 or 6 class light icebreakers<br>Sweden: four PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreakers<br><em>Great Lakes/St Lawrence Seaway</em><br>Canada: one PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreaker, ten PC 5 or 6 class light icebreakers<br><em>Mediterranean</em><br>Italy: one PC 5 or 6 class light icebreaker<br><em>South Atlantic</em><br>Argentina: one PC 5 or 6 class light icebreaker<br>UK (Falkland Islands): one PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreaker<br>South Africa: one PC 5 or 6 class light icebreaker<br><br><strong>note:</strong> the ships are listed by Polar Class (PC) vessel: PC 1 - year-round operation in all polar waters (ice thickness >3 m); PC 2 - year-round operation in moderate multi-year ice conditions (ice thickness up to 3 m); PC 3 - year-round operation in second-year ice which may include multi-year ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 2.5 m); PC 4 - year-round operation in thick first-year ice which may include old ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 120 cm); PC 5 - year-round operation in medium first-year ice which may include old ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 70-120 cm); PC 6 - summer/autumn operation in medium first-year ice which may include old ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 30-70 cm)"
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},
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"Ports and terminals": {
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"major seaport(s)": {
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"text": "Alexandria (Egypt), Algiers (Algeria), Antwerp (Belgium), Barcelona (Spain), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Casablanca (Morocco), Colon (Panama), Copenhagen (Denmark), Dakar (Senegal), Gdansk (Poland), Hamburg (Germany), Helsinki (Finland), Las Palmas (Canary Islands, Spain), Le Havre (France), Lisbon (Portugal), London (UK), Marseille (France), Montevideo (Uruguay), Montreal (Canada), Naples (Italy), New Orleans (US), New York (US), Oran (Algeria), Oslo (Norway), Peiraiefs or Piraeus (Greece), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Rotterdam (Netherlands), Saint Petersburg (Russia), Stockholm (Sweden)"
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}
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},
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"Transportation - note": {
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"text": "Kiel Canal and Saint Lawrence Seaway are two important waterways; significant domestic commercial and recreational use of Intracoastal Waterway on central and south Atlantic seaboard and Gulf of Mexico coast of US"
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}
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"Transportation": {
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"Icebreakers": {
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"text": "<em>North Pacific</em><br>China: one PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreaker, and three PC 5 or 6 class light icebreakers<br>Japan: one PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreaker<br>Russia: one PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreaker, and six PC 5 or 6 class light icebreakers<br>US: one PC 1 or 2 class heavy icebreaker, one PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreaker, and one PC 5 or 6 class light icebreaker<br><em>South Pacific</em><br>Australia: one PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreaker<br>Chile: one PC 5 or 6 class light icebreaker<br>France (French Polynesia): one PC 3 or 4 class medium icebreaker<br><br><strong>note:</strong> the ships are listed by Polar Class (PC) vessel: PC 1 - year-round operation in all polar waters (ice thickness >3 m); PC 2 - year-round operation in moderate multi-year ice conditions (ice thickness up to 3 m); PC 3 - year-round operation in second-year ice which may include multi-year ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 2.5 m); PC 4 - year-round operation in thick first-year ice which may include old ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 120 cm); PC 5 - year-round operation in medium first-year ice which may include old ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 70-120 cm); PC 6 - summer/autumn operation in medium first-year ice which may include old ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 30-70 cm)"
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},
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"Ports and terminals": {
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"major seaport(s)": {
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"text": "Bangkok (Thailand), Hong Kong (China), Kao-hsiung (Taiwan), Los Angeles (US), Manila (Philippines), Busan (South Korea), San Francisco (US), Seattle (US), Shanghai (China), Singapore, Sydney (Australia), Vladivostok (Russia), Wellington (NZ), Yokohama (Japan)"
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}
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}
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},
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"Military and Security": {
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