auto-update week 46

oceans/oo.json

@@ -29,9 +29,6 @@
     "Climate": {
       "text": "sea temperatures vary from about 10 degrees Celsius to -2 degrees Celsius; cyclonic storms travel eastward around the continent and frequently are intense because of the temperature contrast between ice and open ocean; the ocean area from about latitude 40 south to the Antarctic Circle has the strongest average winds found anywhere on Earth; in winter the ocean freezes outward to 65 degrees south latitude in the Pacific sector and 55 degrees south latitude in the Atlantic sector, lowering surface temperatures well below 0 degrees Celsius; at some coastal points intense persistent drainage winds from the interior keep the shoreline ice-free throughout the winter"
     },
-    "Terrain": {
-      "text": "<p>the Southern Ocean is 4,000 to 5,000-m deep over most of its extent with only limited areas of shallow water; the Antarctic continental shelf is generally narrow and unusually deep, its edge lying at depths of 400 to 800 m (the global mean is 133 m); the Antarctic icepack grows from an average minimum of 2.6 million sq km in March to about 18.8 million sq km in September, better than a sixfold increase in area</p> <p><strong>major surface currents:</strong> the cold, clockwise-flowing Antarctic Circumpolar Current (West Wind Drift; 21,000 km long) moves perpetually eastward around the continent and is the world's largest and strongest ocean current, transporting 130 million cubic meters of water per second - 100 times the flow of all the world's rivers; it is also the only current that flows all the way around the planet and connects the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans; the cold Antarctic Coastal Current (East Wind Drift) is the southernmost current in the world, flowing westward and parallel to the Antarctic coastline</p>"
-    },
     "Ocean volume": {
       "ocean volume": {
         "text": "71.8 million cu km"
@@ -40,6 +37,9 @@
         "text": "5.4%"
       }
     },
+    "Major ocean currents": {
+      "text": "<p>The cold, clockwise-flowing Antarctic Circumpolar Current (West Wind Drift; 21,000 km long) moves perpetually eastward around the continent and is the world's largest and strongest ocean current, transporting 130 million cubic meters of water per second - 100 times the flow of all the world's rivers; it is also the only current that flows all the way around the planet and connects the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans; the cold Antarctic Coastal Current (East Wind Drift) is the southernmost current in the world, flowing westward and parallel to the Antarctic coastline</p>"
+    },
     "Elevation": {
       "highest point": {
         "text": "sea level"

oceans/xo.json

@@ -29,9 +29,6 @@
     "Climate": {
       "text": "northeast monsoon (December to April), southwest monsoon (June to October); tropical cyclones occur during May/June and October/November in the northern Indian Ocean and January/February in the southern Indian Ocean"
     },
-    "Terrain": {
-      "text": "<p>surface dominated by a major gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the southern Indian Ocean and a unique reversal of surface currents in the northern Indian Ocean; ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge and subdivided by the Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge, Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge, and Ninetyeast Ridge</p> <p><strong>major surface currents:</strong> the counterclockwise Indian Ocean Gyre comprised of the southward flowing warm Agulhas and East Madagascar Currents in the west, the eastward flowing South Indian Current in the south, the northward flowing cold West Australian Current in the east, and the westward flowing South Equatorial Current in the north; a distinctive annual reversal of surface currents occurs in the northern Indian Ocean; low atmospheric pressure over southwest Asia from hot, rising, summer air results in the southwest monsoon and southwest-to-northeast winds and clockwise currents, while high pressure over northern Asia from cold, falling, winter air results in the northeast monsoon and northeast-to-southwest winds and counterclockwise currents</p>"
-    },
     "Ocean volume": {
       "ocean volume": {
         "text": "264 million cu km"
@@ -40,6 +37,32 @@
         "text": "19.8%"
       }
     },
+    "Major ocean currents": {
+      "text": "The counterclockwise Indian Ocean Gyre comprised of the southward flowing warm Agulhas and East Madagascar Currents in the west, the eastward flowing South Indian Current in the south, the northward flowing cold West Australian Current in the east, and the westward flowing South Equatorial Current in the north; a distinctive annual reversal of surface currents occurs in the northern Indian Ocean; low atmospheric pressure over southwest Asia from hot, rising, summer air results in the southwest monsoon and southwest-to-northeast winds and clockwise currents, while high pressure over northern Asia from cold, falling, winter air results in the northeast monsoon and northeast-to-southwest winds and counterclockwise currents"
+    },
+    "Bathymetry": {
+      "continental shelf": {
+        "text": "<p>The <em>continental shelf </em>(see Figure 1), a rather flat area of the sea floor adjacent to the coast that gradually slopes down from the shore to water depths of about 200 m (660 ft). Dimensions can vary: they may be narrow or nearly nonexistent in some places or extend for hundreds of miles in others. The waters along the continental shelf are usually productive in both plant and animal life, both from sunlight and nutrients from ocean upwelling and terrestrial runoff. The following are examples of features found on the <em>continental shelf</em> of the Indian Ocean (see Figure 2).</p> <p>Exmouth Plateau<br>Indus Canyon <br>The Swatch of No Ground/Ganges Canyon (Bay of Bengal)<br>Sunda Shelf</p>"
+      },
+      "continental slope": {
+        "text": "<p>The <em>continental slope</em> (see Figure 1) is where the ocean bottom drops off more rapidly until it meets the deep-sea floor (abyssal plain) at about 3,200 m (10,500 ft) water depth. The deep waters of the continental slope are characterized by cold temperatures, low light conditions, and very high pressures. Sunlight does not penetrate to these depths, having been absorbed or reflected in the water above. The <em>continental slope</em> can be indented by submarine canyons, often associated with the outflow of major rivers. Another feature of the continental slope are alluvial fans or cones of sediments carried downstream to the ocean by major rivers and deposited down the slope. The following are examples of features found on the <em>continental slope</em> of the Indian Ocean (see Figure 2).</p> <p>Bengal Fan<br>Indus Fan</p>"
+      },
+      "abyssal plains": {
+        "text": "<p>The <em>abyssal plains </em>(see Figure 1), at depths of over 3,000 m (10,000 ft) and covering 70% of the ocean floor, are the largest habitat on earth. Sunlight does not penetrate to the sea floor, making these deep, dark ecosystems less productive than those along the continental shelf. Despite their name, these “plains” are not uniformly flat; they are interrupted by features like hills, valleys, and seamounts. The following are examples of features found on the <em>abyssal plains</em> of the Indian Ocean (see Figure 2).</p> <p>Arabian Basin<br>Crozet Basin<br>Madagascar Basin<br>Mid-Indian Basin<br>Mozambique Basin<br>Wharton Basin</p>"
+      },
+      "mid-ocean ridge": {
+        "text": "<p>The <em>mid-ocean ridge </em>(see Figure 1), rising up from the abyssal plain, is an underwater mountain range, over 64,000 km (40,000 mi) long, rising to an average depth of 2,400 m (8,000 ft). <em>Mid-ocean ridges</em> form at divergent plate boundaries where two tectonic plates are moving apart and new crust is created by magma pushing up from the mantle. Tracing their way around the global ocean, this system of underwater volcanoes forms the longest mountain range on Earth. Fracture Zones are linear transform faults that develop perpendicular to the line of the mid-ocean ridge which can offset the ridge line and divide it into segments. The following are examples of <em>mid-ocean ridges</em> found on the floor of the Indian Ocean (see Figure 2).</p> <p>Central Indian Ridge<br>Davie Ridge<br>Southeast Indian Ridge<br>Southwest Indian Ridge</p>"
+      },
+      "seamounts": {
+        "text": "<p><em>Seamounts</em> (see Figure 1) are submarine mountains at least 1,000 m (3,300 ft) high formed from individual volcanoes on the ocean floor. They are distinct from the plate-boundary volcanic system of the mid-ocean ridges, because <em>seamounts</em> tend to be circular or conical. A circular collapse caldera is often centered at the summit, evidence of a magma chamber within the volcano. Flat topped <em>seamounts</em> are known as <em>guyots</em>. Long chains of <em>seamounts</em> are often fed by \"hot spots\" in the deep mantle. These hot spots are associated with stationary plumes of molten rock rising from deep within the Earth's mantle. These hot spot plumes melt through the overlying tectonic plate as it moves and supplies magma to the active volcanic island at the end of the chain of volcanic islands and <em>seamounts</em>. The following are examples of <em>seamounts</em> found on the floor of the Indian Ocean (see Figure 2).</p> <p>Andaman-Nicobar Ridge<br>Chagos-Laccadive Ridge<br>Kerguelen Plateau<br>Madagascar Plateau<br>Mascarene Plateau<br>Mozambique Plateau<br>Ninetyeast Ridge<br><br></p>"
+      },
+      "ocean trenches": {
+        "text": "<p><em>Ocean trenches</em> (see Figure 1) are the deepest parts of the ocean floor and are created by the process of subduction. Trenches form along convergent boundaries where tectonic plates are moving toward each other, and one plate sinks (is subducted) under another. The location where the sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone. Subduction can occur when oceanic crust collides with and sinks under (subducts) continental crust resulting in volcanic, seismic, and mountain-building processes. Subduction can also occur in the convergence of two oceanic plates where one will sink under the other and in the process create a deep ocean trench. Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also result in the formation of volcanoes. Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic debris pile up on the ocean floor until a submarine volcano rises above sea level to form a volcanic island. Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains called island arcs. As the name implies, volcanic island arcs, which closely parallel the trenches, are generally curved. The following are examples of <em>ocean trenches</em> found on the floor of the Indian Ocean (see Figure 2).</p> <p>Java/Sunda Trench; note - deepest point in the Indian Ocean</p>"
+      },
+      "atolls": {
+        "text": "<p><em>Atolls</em> (see Figure 1) are the remains of dormant volcanic islands. In warm tropical oceans, coral colonies establish themselves on the margins of the island. Then, over time, the high elevation of the island collapses and erodes away to sea level leaving behind an outline of the island in the form of the fringing coral reef. The resulting low island is typified by the coral reef surrounding a low elevation of sand and coral above sea level with an interior shallow lagoon. Often times the remaining dry land is broken into a ring of islets. Some lagoons can be hundreds of square kilometers. It may take as long as 300,000 years for an atoll formation to occur. <em>Guyots</em> are submerged atoll structures, which explains why they are flat topped seamounts. The following are examples of <em>atolls</em> found in the Indian Ocean (see Figure 2).</p> <p>Bassas da India<br>Chagos Archipelago/Diego Garcia<br>Europa Island<br>Juan de Nova Island<br>Lakshadweep Islands<br>Maldive Islands<br>Seychelles</p>"
+      }
+    },
     "Elevation": {
       "highest point": {
         "text": "sea level"

oceans/xq.json

@@ -29,9 +29,6 @@
     "Climate": {
       "text": "polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature range; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow"
     },
-    "Terrain": {
-      "text": "<p>central surface covered by a perennial drifting polar icepack that, on average, is about 3 m thick, although pressure ridges may be three times that thickness; the icepack is surrounded by open seas during the summer, but more than doubles in size during the winter and extends to the encircling landmasses; the ocean floor is about 50% continental shelf (highest percentage of any ocean) with the remainder a central basin interrupted by three submarine ridges (Alpha Cordillera, Nansen Cordillera, and Lomonosov Ridge)</p> <p><strong>major surface currents:</strong> two major, slow-moving, wind-driven currents (drift streams) dominate: a clockwise drift pattern in the Beaufort Gyre in the western part of the Arctic Ocean and a nearly straight line Transpolar Drift Stream that moves eastward across the ocean from the New Siberian Islands (Russia) to the Fram Strait (between Greenland and Svalbard); sea ice that lies close to the center of the gyre can complete a 360 degree circle in about 2 years, while ice on the gyre periphery will complete the same circle in about 7-8 years; sea ice in the Transpolar Drift crosses the ocean in about 3 years</p>"
-    },
     "Ocean volume": {
       "ocean volume": {
         "text": "18.75 million cu km"
@@ -40,6 +37,9 @@
         "text": "1.4%"
       }
     },
+    "Major ocean currents": {
+      "text": "<p>Two major, slow-moving, wind-driven currents (drift streams) dominate: a clockwise drift pattern in the Beaufort Gyre in the western part of the Arctic Ocean and a nearly straight line Transpolar Drift Stream that moves eastward across the ocean from the New Siberian Islands (Russia) to the Fram Strait (between Greenland and Svalbard); sea ice that lies close to the center of the gyre can complete a 360 degree circle in about 2 years, while ice on the gyre periphery will complete the same circle in about 7-8 years; sea ice in the Transpolar Drift crosses the ocean in about 3 years</p>"
+    },
     "Elevation": {
       "highest point": {
         "text": "sea level"

oceans/zh.json

@@ -29,9 +29,6 @@
     "Climate": {
       "text": "tropical cyclones (hurricanes) develop off the coast of Africa near Cabo Verde and move westward into the Caribbean Sea; hurricanes can occur from May to December but are most frequent from August to November"
     },
-    "Terrain": {
-      "text": "<p>surface usually covered with sea ice in Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and coastal portions of the Baltic Sea from October to June; surface dominated by two large gyres (broad, circular systems of currents), one in the northern Atlantic and another in the southern Atlantic; the ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin</p> <p><strong>major surface currents:</strong> clockwise North Atlantic Gyre consists of the northward flowing, warm Gulf Stream in the west, the eastward flowing North Atlantic Current in the north, the southward flowing cold Canary Current in the east, and the westward flowing North Equatorial Current in the south; the counterclockwise South Atlantic Gyre composed of the southward flowing warm Brazil Current in the west, the eastward flowing South Atlantic Current in the south, the northward flowing cold Benguela Current in the east, and the westward flowing South Equatorial Current in the north</p>"
-    },
     "Ocean volume": {
       "ocean volume": {
         "text": "310,410,900 cu km"
@@ -40,6 +37,32 @@
         "text": "23.3%"
       }
     },
+    "Major ocean currents": {
+      "text": "Clockwise North Atlantic Gyre consists of the northward flowing, warm Gulf Stream in the west, the eastward flowing North Atlantic Current in the north, the southward flowing cold Canary Current in the east, and the westward flowing North Equatorial Current in the south; the counterclockwise South Atlantic Gyre composed of the southward flowing warm Brazil Current in the west, the eastward flowing South Atlantic Current in the south, the northward flowing cold Benguela Current in the east, and the westward flowing South Equatorial Current in the north"
+    },
+    "Bathymetry": {
+      "continental shelf": {
+        "text": "The <em>continental shelf</em> (see Figure 1), a rather flat area of the sea floor adjacent to the coast that gradually slopes down from the shore to water depths of about 200 m (660 ft). Dimensions can vary: they may be narrow or nearly nonexistent in some places or extend for hundreds of miles in others. The waters along the <em>continental shelf</em> are usually productive in both plant and animal life, both from sunlight and nutrients from ocean upwelling and terrestrial runoff. The passive margins of the Atlantic Ocean provide for wide continental shelves in North America, Northwest Europe, and the southern coast of South America. The following are examples of features found on the <em>continental shelf</em> of the Atlantic Ocean.<br> <p>Blake Plateau (Figure 5)<br>Celtic Shelf (Figure 2)<br>Dogger Bank (Figure 2) <br>Flemish Cap (Figure 2) <br>Falkland Plateau (Figure 3) <br>Grand Banks of Newfoundland (Figure 2) <br>Great Bahama Bank (Figure 5)<br>Little Bahama Bank (Figure 5)<br>Tunisian Plateau (Figure 4)<br>Yacatan Shelf (Figure 5)</p>"
+      },
+      "continental slope": {
+        "text": "The c<em>ontinental slope</em> (see Figure 1) is where the ocean bottom drops off more rapidly until it meets the deep-sea floor (<em>abyssal plain</em>) at about 3,200 m (10,500 ft) water depth. The deep waters of the <em>continental slope</em> are characterized by cold temperatures, low light conditions, and very high pressures. Sunlight does not penetrate to these depths, having been absorbed or reflected in the water above. The <em>continental slope</em> can be indented by submarine canyons, often associated with the outflow of major rivers. Another feature of the <em>continental slope</em> are alluvial fans or cones of sediments carried downstream to the ocean by major rivers and deposited down the slope. The following are examples of features found on the <em>continental slope</em> of the Atlantic Ocean.<br> <p>Amazon Cone (Figure 3)<br>Congo Fan (Figure 3)<br>Hudson Canyon (Figure 5)<br>Mississippi Fan (Figure 5)</p>"
+      },
+      "abyssal plains": {
+        "text": "The a<em>byssal plains</em> (see Figure 1), at depths of over 3,000 m (10,000 ft) and covering 70% of the ocean floor, are the largest habitat on earth. Sunlight does not penetrate to the sea floor, making these deep, dark ecosystems less productive than those along the continental shelf. Despite their name, these “plains” are not uniformly flat; they are interrupted by features like hills, valleys, and seamounts. The following are examples of features found on the <em>abyssal plains</em> of the Atlantic Ocean.<br> <p>Angola Basin (Figure 3)<br>Agulhas Basin (Figure 3) <br>Argentine Basin (Figure 3) <br>Brazil Basin (Figure 3)<br>Canary Basin (Figure 2) <br>Cape Basin (Figure 3)<br>Colombia Basin (Figure 2) <br>Labrador Basin (Figure 2) <br>Mexico Basin (Figure 2)<br>Newfoundland Basin (Figure 2) <br>North American Basin (Figure 2) <br>Venezuela Basin (Figure 2)<br>West European Basin (Figure 2)</p>"
+      },
+      "mid-ocean ridge": {
+        "text": "The <em>mid-ocean ridge </em>(see Figure 1), rising up from the <em>abyssal plain</em>, is an underwater mountain range, over 64,000 km (40,000 mi) long, rising to an average depth of 2,400 m (8,000 ft). <em>Mid-ocean ridges</em> form at divergent plate boundaries where two tectonic plates are moving apart and new crust is created by magma pushing up from the mantle. Tracing their way around the global ocean, this system of underwater volcanoes forms the longest mountain range on Earth. Fracture Zones are linear transform faults that develop perpendicular to the line of the mid-ocean ridge which can offset the ridge line and divide it into segments.The Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone displaces the mid-ocean ridge 350 km to the west separating the Mid-Atlantic Ridge from the Reykjanes Ridge. The Romanche Fracture Zone, located near the Equator, offsets the Mid-Atlantic Ridge 900 km and is considered the dividing line between the North and South Atlantic Oceans. The following are examples of <em>mid-ocean ridges</em> found on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean.<br> <p>East Mediterranean Ridge (Figure 4)<br>Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Figures 2, 3)<br>Reykjanes Ridge (Figure 2)</p>"
+      },
+      "seamounts": {
+        "text": "<em>Seamounts</em> (see Figure 1) are submarine mountains at least 1,000 m (3,300 ft) high formed from individual volcanoes on the ocean floor. They are distinct from the plate-boundary volcanic system of the <em>mid-ocean ridges</em>, because <em>seamounts</em> tend to be circular or conical. A circular collapse caldera is often centered at the summit, evidence of a magma chamber within the volcano. Flat topped <em>seamounts</em> are known as <em>guyots</em>. Long chains of <em>seamounts</em> are often fed by \"hot spots\" in the deep mantle. These hot spots are associated with stationary plumes of molten rock rising from deep within the Earth's mantle. These hot spot plumes melt through the overlying tectonic plate as it moves and supplies magma to the active volcanic island at the end of the chain of volcanic islands and <em>seamounts</em>. The following are examples of <em>seamounts</em> found on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean.<br> <p>Bermuda Rise (Figure 2)<br>Cape Verde Plateau (Figure 2)<br>New England Seamounts (Figure 2)<br>Rio Grande Plateau (Figure 3)<br>Rockall Plateau (Figure 2)</p>"
+      },
+      "ocean trenches": {
+        "text": "<em>Ocean trenches</em> (see Figure 1) are the deepest parts of the ocean floor and are created by the process of subduction. <em>Trenches</em> form along convergent boundaries where tectonic plates are moving toward each other, and one plate sinks (is subducted) under another. The location where the sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone. Subduction can occur when oceanic crust collides with and sinks under (subducts) continental crust resulting in volcanic, seismic, and mountain-building processes. Subduction can also occur in the convergence of two oceanic plates where one will sink under the other and in the process create a deep <em>ocean trench</em>. Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also result in the formation of volcanoes. Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic debris pile up on the ocean floor until a submarine volcano rises above sea level to form a <em>volcanic island</em>. Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains called island arcs. As the name implies, volcanic island arcs, which closely parallel the <em>trenches</em>, are generally curved. The following are examples of <em>ocean trenches</em> found on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean.<br> <p>Cayman Trench (Caribbean Sea) (Figure 2)<br>Hellenic Trench (Mediterranean Sea) (Figure 4)<br>Puerto Rico Trench (Figure 2); note - deepest point in the Atlantic Ocean <br>South Sandwich Trench (South Atlantic) (Figure 3)</p>"
+      },
+      "atolls": {
+        "text": "<em>Atolls</em> are the remains of dormant volcanic islands. In warm tropical oceans, coral colonies establish themselves on the margins of the island. Then, over time, the high elevation of the island collapses and erodes away to sea level leaving behind an outline of the island in the form of the fringing coral reef. The resulting low island is typified by the coral reef surrounding a low elevation of sand and coral above sea level with an interior shallow lagoon. Often times the remaining dry land is broken into a ring of islets. Some lagoons can be hundreds of square kilometers. It may take as long as 300,000 years for an <em>atoll</em> formation to occur. <em>Guyots </em>are submerged atoll structures, which explains why they are flat topped seamounts. The following are examples of <em>atolls</em> found in the Atlantic Ocean<br><br>Rocas Atoll (Brazil); note - the only atoll in the South Atlantic"
+      }
+    },
     "Elevation": {
       "highest point": {
         "text": "sea level"

oceans/zn.json

@@ -29,9 +29,6 @@
     "Climate": {
       "text": "planetary air pressure systems and resultant wind patterns exhibit remarkable uniformity in the south and east; trade winds and westerly winds are well-developed patterns, modified by seasonal fluctuations; tropical cyclones (hurricanes) may form south of Mexico from June to October and affect Mexico and Central America; continental influences cause climatic uniformity to be much less pronounced in the eastern and western regions at the same latitude in the North Pacific Ocean; the western Pacific is monsoonal - a rainy season occurs during the summer months, when moisture-laden winds blow from the ocean over the land, and a dry season during the winter months, when dry winds blow from the Asian landmass back to the ocean; tropical cyclones (typhoons) may strike southeast and east Asia from May to December"
     },
-    "Terrain": {
-      "text": "<p>surface dominated by two large gyres (broad, circular systems of currents), one in the northern Pacific and another in the southern Pacific; in the northern Pacific, sea ice forms in the Bering Sea and Sea of Okhotsk in winter; in the southern Pacific, sea ice from Antarctica reaches its northernmost extent in October; the ocean floor in the eastern Pacific is dominated by the East Pacific Rise, while the western Pacific is dissected by deep trenches, including the Mariana Trench, which is the world's deepest at 10,924 m</p> <p><strong>major surface currents:</strong> clockwise North Pacific Gyre formed by the warm northward flowing Kuroshio Current in the west, the eastward flowing North Pacific Current in the north, the southward flowing cold California Current in the east, and the westward flowing North Equatorial Current in the south; the counterclockwise South Pacific Gyre composed of the southward flowing warm East Australian Current in the west, the eastward flowing South Pacific Current in the south, the northward flowing cold Peru (Humbolt) Current in the east, and the westward flowing South Equatorial Current in the north</p>"
-    },
     "Ocean volume": {
       "ocean volume": {
         "text": "669.88 million cu km"
@@ -40,6 +37,32 @@
         "text": "50.1%"
       }
     },
+    "Major ocean currents": {
+      "text": "The clockwise North Pacific Gyre formed by the warm northward flowing Kuroshio Current in the west, the eastward flowing North Pacific Current in the north, the southward flowing cold California Current in the east, and the westward flowing North Equatorial Current in the south; the counterclockwise South Pacific Gyre composed of the southward flowing warm East Australian Current in the west, the eastward flowing South Pacific Current in the south, the northward flowing cold Peru (Humbolt) Current in the east, and the westward flowing South Equatorial Current in the north"
+    },
+    "Bathymetry": {
+      "continental shelf": {
+        "text": "The <em>continental shelf</em> (see Figure 1), a rather flat area of the sea floor adjacent to the coast that gradually slopes down from the shore to water depths of about 200 m (660 ft). Dimensions can vary: they may be narrow or nearly nonexistent in some places or extend for hundreds of miles in others. The waters along the <em>continental shelf</em> are usually productive in both plant and animal life, both from sunlight and nutrients from ocean upwelling and terrestrial runoff. The following are examples of features found on the <em>continental shelf</em> of the Pacific Ocean.<br> <p>Arafura Shelf (Figure 4B)<br>Sahul Shelf (Figure 4B)<br>Sunda Shelf (Figure 4B)<br>Taiwan Banks (Figure 4B)<br><br></p>"
+      },
+      "continental slope": {
+        "text": "The c<em>ontinental slope</em> (see Figure 1) is where the ocean bottom drops off more rapidly until it meets the deep-sea floor (<em>abyssal plain</em>) at about 3,200 m (10,500 ft) water depth. The deep waters of the <em>continental slope</em> are characterized by cold temperatures, low light conditions, and very high pressures. Sunlight does not penetrate to these depths, having been absorbed or reflected in the water above. The <em>continental slope</em> can be indented by submarine canyons, often associated with the outflow of major rivers. Another feature of the <em>continental slope</em> are alluvial fans or cones of sediments carried downstream to the ocean by major rivers and deposited down the slope. The following are examples of features found on the <em>continental slope</em> of the Pacific Ocean.<br> <p>Pribilof Canyon (Figure 2)<br>Zhemchug Canyon (Figure 2); note - deepest submarine canyon</p>"
+      },
+      "abyssal plains": {
+        "text": "The a<em>byssal plains</em> (see Figure 1), at depths of over 3,000 m (10,000 ft) and covering 70% of the ocean floor, are the largest habitat on earth. Sunlight does not penetrate to the sea floor, making these deep, dark ecosystems less productive than those along the continental shelf. Despite their name, these “plains” are not uniformly flat; they are interrupted by features like hills, valleys, and seamounts. The following are examples of features found on the <em>abyssal plains</em> of the Pacific Ocean.<br> <p>Aleutian Basin (Figure 2)<br>Central Pacific Basin (Figure 2)<br>Northeast Pacific Basin (Figure 2)<br>Northwest Pacific Basin (Figure 2)<br>Philippine Basin (Figure 4)<br>Southwest Pacific Basin (Figure 4)<br>Tasman Basin (Figure 4)</p>"
+      },
+      "mid-ocean ridge": {
+        "text": "The <em>mid-ocean ridge </em>(see Figure 1), rising up from the <em>abyssal plain</em>, is an underwater mountain range, over 64,000 km (40,000 mi) long, rising to an average depth of 2,400 m (8,000 ft). <em>Mid-ocean ridges</em> form at divergent plate boundaries where two tectonic plates are moving apart and new crust is created by magma pushing up from the mantle. Tracing their way around the global ocean, this system of underwater volcanoes forms the longest mountain range on Earth. Fracture Zones are linear transform faults that develop perpendicular to the line of the mid-ocean ridge which can offset the ridge line and divide it into segments. The following are examples of <em>mid-ocean ridges</em> found on the floor of the Pacific Ocean.<br> <p>East Pacific Rise (Figure 3)<br>Pacific-Antarctic Ridge (Figure 3)</p>"
+      },
+      "seamounts": {
+        "text": "<em>Seamounts</em> (see Figure 1) are submarine mountains at least 1,000 m (3,300 ft) high formed from individual volcanoes on the ocean floor. They are distinct from the plate-boundary volcanic system of the <em>mid-ocean ridges</em>, because <em>seamounts</em> tend to be circular or conical. A circular collapse caldera is often centered at the summit, evidence of a magma chamber within the volcano. Flat topped <em>seamounts</em> are known as <em>guyots</em>. Long chains of <em>seamounts</em> are often fed by \"hot spots\" in the deep mantle. These hot spots are associated with stationary plumes of molten rock rising from deep within the Earth's mantle. These hot spot plumes melt through the overlying tectonic plate as it moves and supplies magma to the active volcanic island at the end of the chain of volcanic islands and <em>seamounts</em>. The following are examples of <em>seamounts</em> found on the floor of the Pacific Ocean.<br> <p>Caroline Seamounts (Figure 4B)<br>East Mariana Ridge (Figure 4)<br>Emperor Seamount Chain (Figure 2)<br>Hawaiian Ridge (Figure 2)<br>Lord Howe Seamount Chain (Figure 4)<br>Louisville Ridge (Figure 4)<br>Kapingamarangi (Ontong-Java) Rise (Figure 4B); note - largest submarine plateau<br>Macclesfield Bank (Figure 4B)<br>Marshall Seamounts (Figure 2)<br>Magellan Seamounts (Figure 2)<br>Mid-Pacific Seamounts (Figure 2)<br>Reed Tablemount (Figure 4B)<br>Shatsky Rise (Figure 2); note - third largest submarine plateau<br>Tonga-Kermadec Ridge (Figure 4)</p>"
+      },
+      "ocean trenches": {
+        "text": "<em>Ocean trenches</em> (see Figure 1) are the deepest parts of the ocean floor and are created by the process of subduction. <em>Trenches</em> form along convergent boundaries where tectonic plates are moving toward each other, and one plate sinks (is subducted) under another. The location where the sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone. Subduction can occur when oceanic crust collides with and sinks under (subducts) continental crust resulting in volcanic, seismic, and mountain-building processes. Subduction can also occur in the convergence of two oceanic plates where one will sink under the other and in the process create a deep <em>ocean trench</em>. Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also result in the formation of volcanoes. Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic debris pile up on the ocean floor until a submarine volcano rises above sea level to form a <em>volcanic island</em>. Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains called island arcs. As the name implies, volcanic island arcs, which closely parallel the <em>trenches</em>, are generally curved. The following are examples of <em>ocean trenches</em> found on the floor of the Pacific Ocean.<br> <p>Aleutian Trench (Figure 2)<br>Chile Trench (Figure 3)<br>Izu-Ogasawara Trench (Figure 2)<br>Japan Trench (Figure 2)<br>Kermadec Trench (Figure 3, 4)<br>Kuril-Kamchatka Trench (Figure 2)<br>Manus Trench (Figure 4)<br>Mariana Trench (Figure 2, 4); note - deepest ocean trench<br>Middle America Trench (Figure 3)<br>Nansei-Shoto Trench (Figure 4B)<br>Palau Trench (Figure 2, 4)<br>Philippine Trench (Figure 4)<br>Peru-Chile Trench (Figure 3)<br>South New Hebrides Trench (Figure 4)<br>Tonga Trench (Figure 3, 4)<br>Yap Trench (Figure 2, 4)</p>"
+      },
+      "atolls": {
+        "text": "<em>Atolls</em> are the remains of dormant volcanic islands. In warm tropical oceans, coral colonies establish themselves on the margins of the island. Then, over time, the high elevation of the island collapses and erodes away to sea level leaving behind an outline of the island in the form of the fringing coral reef. The resulting low island is typified by the coral reef surrounding a low elevation of sand and coral above sea level with an interior shallow lagoon. Often times the remaining dry land is broken into a ring of islets. Some lagoons can be hundreds of square kilometers. It may take as long as 300,000 years for an <em>atoll</em> formation to occur. <em>Guyots </em>are submerged atoll structures, which explains why they are flat topped seamounts. The following are examples of <em>atolls</em> found in the Pacific Ocean; for more information see the following entries in The World Factbook.<br><br>Federated States of Micronesia<br>French Polynesia<br>Kiribati<br>Marshall Islands<br>Midway Island<br>Tonga<br>Tuvalu<br>US Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges<br>Vanuatu<br>Wake Island"
+      }
+    },
     "Elevation": {
       "highest point": {
         "text": "sea level"