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{
"Introduction": {
"Background": {
"text": "A large body of recent oceanographic research has shown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), an ocean current that flows from west to east around Antarctica, plays a crucial role in global ocean circulation. The region where the cold waters of the ACC meet and mingle with the warmer waters of the north defines a distinct border - the Antarctic Convergence - which fluctuates with the seasons, but which encompasses a discrete body of water and a unique ecologic region. The Convergence concentrates nutrients, which promotes marine plant life, and which, in turn, allows for a greater abundance of animal life. In 2000, the International Hydrographic Organization delimited the waters within the Convergence as a fifth world ocean - the Southern Ocean - by combining the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extends from the coast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude, which coincides with the Antarctic Treaty region and which approximates the extent of the Antarctic Convergence. As such, the Southern Ocean is now the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the Arctic Ocean). It should be noted that inclusion of the Southern Ocean does not imply recognition of this feature as one of the world's primary oceans by the US Government."
}
},
"Geography": {
"Location": {
"text": "body of water between 60 degrees south latitude and Antarctica"
},
"Geographic coordinates": {
"text": "60 00 S, 90 00 E (nominally), but the Southern Ocean has the unique distinction of being a large circumpolar body of water totally encircling the continent of Antarctica; this ring of water lies between 60 degrees south latitude and the coast of Antarctica and encompasses 360 degrees of longitude"
},
"Map references": {
"text": "Antarctic Region"
},
"Area": {
"total": {
"text": "20.327 million sq km"
},
"note": {
"text": "note: includes Amundsen Sea, Bellingshausen Sea, part of the Drake Passage, Ross Sea, a small part of the Scotia Sea, Weddell Sea, and other tributary water bodies"
}
},
"Area - comparative": {
"text": "slightly more than twice the size of the US"
},
"Coastline": {
"text": "17,968 km"
},
"Climate": {
"text": "sea temperatures vary from about 10 degrees Celsius to -2 degrees Celsius; cyclonic storms travel eastward around the continent and frequently are intense because of the temperature contrast between ice and open ocean; the ocean area from about latitude 40 south to the Antarctic Circle has the strongest average winds found anywhere on Earth; in winter the ocean freezes outward to 65 degrees south latitude in the Pacific sector and 55 degrees south latitude in the Atlantic sector, lowering surface temperatures well below 0 degrees Celsius; at some coastal points intense persistent drainage winds from the interior keep the shoreline ice-free throughout the winter"
},
"Terrain": {
"text": "the Southern Ocean is 4,000 to 5,000-m deep over most of its extent with only limited areas of shallow water; the Antarctic continental shelf is generally narrow and unusually deep, its edge lying at depths of 400 to 800 m (the global mean is 133 m); the Antarctic icepack grows from an average minimum of 2.6 million sq km in March to about 18.8 million sq km in September, better than a sixfold increase in area ++ major surface currents: the cold, clockwise-flowing Antarctic Circumpolar Current (West Wind Drift; 21,000 km long) moves perpetually eastward around the continent and is the world's largest and strongest ocean current, transporting 130 million cubic meters of water per second - 100 times the flow of all the world's rivers; it is also the only current that flows all the way around the planet and connects the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans; the cold Antarctic Coastal Current (East Wind Drift) is the southernmost current in the world, flowing westward and parallel to the Antarctic coastline"
},
"Elevation": {
"mean depth": {
"text": "-3,270 m"
},
"lowest point": {
"text": "southern end of the South Sandwich Trench -7,235 m"
},
"highest point": {
"text": "sea level"
}
},
"Natural resources": {
"text": "probable large oil and gas fields on the continental margin; manganese nodules, possible placer deposits, sand and gravel, fresh water as icebergs; squid, whales, and seals - none exploited; krill, fish"
},
"Natural hazards": {
"text": "huge icebergs with drafts up to several hundred meters; smaller bergs and iceberg fragments; sea ice (generally 0.5 to 1 m thick) with sometimes dynamic short-term variations and with large annual and interannual variations; deep continental shelf floored by glacial deposits varying widely over short distances; high winds and large waves much of the year; ship icing, especially May-October; most of region is remote from sources of search and rescue"
},
"Environment - current issues": {
"text": "changes to the ocean's physical, chemical, and biological systems have taken place because of climate change, ocean acidification, and commercial exploitation"
},
"Environment - international agreements": {
"note": {
"text": "the Southern Ocean is subject to all international agreements regarding the world's oceans; in addition, it is subject to these agreements specific to the Antarctic region: International Whaling Commission (prohibits commercial whaling south of 40 degrees south [south of 60 degrees south between 50 degrees and 130 degrees west]); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (limits sealing); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (regulates fishing)\nnote: many nations (including the US) prohibit mineral resource exploration and exploitation south of the fluctuating Polar Front (Antarctic Convergence), which is in the middle of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and serves as the dividing line between the cold polar surface waters to the south and the warmer waters to the north"
}
},
"Geography - note": {
"text": "the major chokepoint is the Drake Passage between South America and Antarctica; the Polar Front (Antarctic Convergence) is the best natural definition of the northern extent of the Southern Ocean; it is a distinct region at the middle of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that separates the cold polar surface waters to the south from the warmer waters to the north; the Front and the Current extend entirely around Antarctica, reaching south of 60 degrees south near New Zealand and near 48 degrees south in the far South Atlantic coinciding with the path of the maximum westerly winds"
}
},
"Government": {
"Country name": {
"etymology": {
"text": "the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) included the ocean and its definition as the waters south of 60 degrees south in its year 2000 revision, but this has not formally been adopted; the 2000 IHO definition, however, was circulated in a draft edition in 2002 and has acquired de facto usage by many nations and organizations, including the CIA"
}
}
},
"Economy": {
"Economy - overview": {
"text": "Fisheries in 2013-14 landed 302,960 metric tons, of which 96% (291,370 tons-the highest reported catch since 1991) was krill and 4% (11,590 tons) Patagonian toothfish (also known as Chilean sea bass), compared to 15,330 tons in 2012-13 (estimated fishing from the area covered by the Convention of the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, which extends slightly beyond the Southern Ocean area). International agreements were adopted in late 1999 to reduce illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, which in the 2000-01 season landed, by one estimate, 8,376 metric tons of Patagonian and Antarctic toothfish. In the 2014-15 Antarctic summer, 36,702 tourists visited the Southern Ocean, slightly lower than the 37,405 visitors in 2013-14 (estimates provided to the Antarctic Treaty by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators, and does not include passengers on overflights and those flying directly in and out of Antarctica)."
},
"Marine fisheries": {
"text": "the Southern Ocean fishery is relatively small with a total catch of 257,278 mt in 2017; the Food and Agriculture Organization has delineated three regions in the Southern Ocean (Regions 48, 58, 88) that generally encompass the waters south of 40° to 60° South latitude; the most important producers in these regions include Norway (156,884 mt), China (38,112 mt), and South Korea (34,506 mt); Antarctic Krill made up 92% of the total catch in 2017, while other important species include Patagonian and Antarctic toothfish"
}
},
"Transportation": {
"Ports and terminals": {
"major seaport(s)": {
"text": "McMurdo, Palmer, and offshore anchorages in Antarctica"
},
"note": {
"text": "note: few ports or harbors exist on the southern side of the Southern Ocean; ice conditions limit use of most to short periods in midsummer; even then some cannot be entered without icebreaker escort; most Antarctic ports are operated by government research stations and, except in an emergency, are not open to commercial or private vessels"
}
},
"Transportation - note": {
"text": "Drake Passage offers alternative to transit through the Panama Canal"
}
},
"Transnational Issues": {
"Disputes - international": {
"text": "Antarctic Treaty defers claims (see Antarctica entry), but Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, NZ, Norway, and UK assert claims (some overlapping), including the continental shelf in the Southern Ocean; several states have expressed an interest in extending those continental shelf claims under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea to include undersea ridges; the US and most other states do not recognize the land or maritime claims of other states and have made no claims themselves (the US and Russia have reserved the right to do so); no formal claims exist in the waters in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west"
}
}
{
"Introduction": {
"Background": {
"text": "A large body of recent oceanographic research has shown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), an ocean current that flows from west to east around Antarctica, plays a crucial role in global ocean circulation. The region where the cold waters of the ACC meet and mingle with the warmer waters of the north defines a distinct border - the Antarctic Convergence - which fluctuates with the seasons, but which encompasses a discrete body of water and a unique ecologic region. The Convergence concentrates nutrients, which promotes marine plant life, and which, in turn, allows for a greater abundance of animal life. In 2000, the International Hydrographic Organization delimited the waters within the Convergence as a fifth world ocean - the Southern Ocean - by combining the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extends from the coast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude, which coincides with the Antarctic Treaty region and which approximates the extent of the Antarctic Convergence. As such, the Southern Ocean is now the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the Arctic Ocean). It should be noted that inclusion of the Southern Ocean does not imply recognition of this feature as one of the world's primary oceans by the US Government."
}
},
"Geography": {
"Location": {
"text": "body of water between 60 degrees south latitude and Antarctica"
},
"Geographic coordinates": {
"text": "60 00 S, 90 00 E (nominally), but the Southern Ocean has the unique distinction of being a large circumpolar body of water totally encircling the continent of Antarctica; this ring of water lies between 60 degrees south latitude and the coast of Antarctica and encompasses 360 degrees of longitude"
},
"Map references": {
"text": "Antarctic Region"
},
"Area": {
"total": {
"text": "20.327 million sq km"
},
"note": {
"text": "note: includes Amundsen Sea, Bellingshausen Sea, part of the Drake Passage, Ross Sea, a small part of the Scotia Sea, Weddell Sea, and other tributary water bodies"
}
},
"Area - comparative": {
"text": "slightly more than twice the size of the US"
},
"Coastline": {
"text": "17,968 km"
},
"Climate": {
"text": "sea temperatures vary from about 10 degrees Celsius to -2 degrees Celsius; cyclonic storms travel eastward around the continent and frequently are intense because of the temperature contrast between ice and open ocean; the ocean area from about latitude 40 south to the Antarctic Circle has the strongest average winds found anywhere on Earth; in winter the ocean freezes outward to 65 degrees south latitude in the Pacific sector and 55 degrees south latitude in the Atlantic sector, lowering surface temperatures well below 0 degrees Celsius; at some coastal points intense persistent drainage winds from the interior keep the shoreline ice-free throughout the winter"
},
"Terrain": {
"text": "the Southern Ocean is 4,000 to 5,000-m deep over most of its extent with only limited areas of shallow water; the Antarctic continental shelf is generally narrow and unusually deep, its edge lying at depths of 400 to 800 m (the global mean is 133 m); the Antarctic icepack grows from an average minimum of 2.6 million sq km in March to about 18.8 million sq km in September, better than a sixfold increase in area ++ major surface currents: the cold, clockwise-flowing Antarctic Circumpolar Current (West Wind Drift; 21,000 km long) moves perpetually eastward around the continent and is the world's largest and strongest ocean current, transporting 130 million cubic meters of water per second - 100 times the flow of all the world's rivers; it is also the only current that flows all the way around the planet and connects the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans; the cold Antarctic Coastal Current (East Wind Drift) is the southernmost current in the world, flowing westward and parallel to the Antarctic coastline"
},
"Elevation": {
"mean depth": {
"text": "-3,270 m"
},
"lowest point": {
"text": "southern end of the South Sandwich Trench -7,235 m"
},
"highest point": {
"text": "sea level"
}
},
"Natural resources": {
"text": "probable large oil and gas fields on the continental margin; manganese nodules, possible placer deposits, sand and gravel, fresh water as icebergs; squid, whales, and seals - none exploited; krill, fish"
},
"Natural hazards": {
"text": "huge icebergs with drafts up to several hundred meters; smaller bergs and iceberg fragments; sea ice (generally 0.5 to 1 m thick) with sometimes dynamic short-term variations and with large annual and interannual variations; deep continental shelf floored by glacial deposits varying widely over short distances; high winds and large waves much of the year; ship icing, especially May-October; most of region is remote from sources of search and rescue"
},
"Environment - current issues": {
"text": "changes to the ocean's physical, chemical, and biological systems have taken place because of climate change, ocean acidification, and commercial exploitation"
},
"Environment - international agreements": {
"note": {
"text": "the Southern Ocean is subject to all international agreements regarding the world's oceans; in addition, it is subject to these agreements specific to the Antarctic region: International Whaling Commission (prohibits commercial whaling south of 40 degrees south [south of 60 degrees south between 50 degrees and 130 degrees west]); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (limits sealing); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (regulates fishing)\nnote: many nations (including the US) prohibit mineral resource exploration and exploitation south of the fluctuating Polar Front (Antarctic Convergence), which is in the middle of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and serves as the dividing line between the cold polar surface waters to the south and the warmer waters to the north"
}
},
"Geography - note": {
"text": "the major chokepoint is the Drake Passage between South America and Antarctica; the Polar Front (Antarctic Convergence) is the best natural definition of the northern extent of the Southern Ocean; it is a distinct region at the middle of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that separates the cold polar surface waters to the south from the warmer waters to the north; the Front and the Current extend entirely around Antarctica, reaching south of 60 degrees south near New Zealand and near 48 degrees south in the far South Atlantic coinciding with the path of the maximum westerly winds"
}
},
"Government": {
"Country name": {
"etymology": {
"text": "the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) included the ocean and its definition as the waters south of 60 degrees south in its year 2000 revision, but this has not formally been adopted; the 2000 IHO definition, however, was circulated in a draft edition in 2002 and has acquired de facto usage by many nations and organizations, including the CIA"
}
}
},
"Economy": {
"Economy - overview": {
"text": "Fisheries in 2013-14 landed 302,960 metric tons, of which 96% (291,370 tons-the highest reported catch since 1991) was krill and 4% (11,590 tons) Patagonian toothfish (also known as Chilean sea bass), compared to 15,330 tons in 2012-13 (estimated fishing from the area covered by the Convention of the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, which extends slightly beyond the Southern Ocean area). International agreements were adopted in late 1999 to reduce illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, which in the 2000-01 season landed, by one estimate, 8,376 metric tons of Patagonian and Antarctic toothfish. In the 2014-15 Antarctic summer, 36,702 tourists visited the Southern Ocean, slightly lower than the 37,405 visitors in 2013-14 (estimates provided to the Antarctic Treaty by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators, and does not include passengers on overflights and those flying directly in and out of Antarctica)."
},
"Marine fisheries": {
"text": "the Southern Ocean fishery is relatively small with a total catch of 257,278 mt in 2017; the Food and Agriculture Organization has delineated three regions in the Southern Ocean (Regions 48, 58, 88) that generally encompass the waters south of 40° to 60° South latitude; the most important producers in these regions include Norway (156,884 mt), China (38,112 mt), and South Korea (34,506 mt); Antarctic Krill made up 92% of the total catch in 2017, while other important species include Patagonian and Antarctic toothfish"
}
},
"Transportation": {
"Ports and terminals": {
"major seaport(s)": {
"text": "McMurdo, Palmer, and offshore anchorages in Antarctica"
},
"note": {
"text": "note: few ports or harbors exist on the southern side of the Southern Ocean; ice conditions limit use of most to short periods in midsummer; even then some cannot be entered without icebreaker escort; most Antarctic ports are operated by government research stations and, except in an emergency, are not open to commercial or private vessels"
}
},
"Transportation - note": {
"text": "Drake Passage offers alternative to transit through the Panama Canal"
}
},
"Transnational Issues": {
"Disputes - international": {
"text": "Antarctic Treaty defers claims (see Antarctica entry), but Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, NZ, Norway, and UK assert claims (some overlapping), including the continental shelf in the Southern Ocean; several states have expressed an interest in extending those continental shelf claims under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea to include undersea ridges; the US and most other states do not recognize the land or maritime claims of other states and have made no claims themselves (the US and Russia have reserved the right to do so); no formal claims exist in the waters in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west"
}
}
}

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oceans/xo.json
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{
"Introduction": {
"Background": {
"text": "The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger than the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically important access waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb (Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait of Malacca (Indonesia-Malaysia).The decision by the International Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Ocean south of 60 degrees south latitude."
}
},
"Geography": {
"Location": {
"text": "body of water between Africa, the Southern Ocean, Asia, and Australia"
},
"Geographic coordinates": {
"text": "20 00 S, 80 00 E"
},
"Map references": {
"text": "Political Map of the World"
},
"Area": {
"total": {
"text": "68.556 million sq km"
},
"note": {
"text": "note: includes Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Flores Sea, Great Australian Bight, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Java Sea, Mozambique Channel, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Savu Sea, Strait of Malacca, Timor Sea, and other tributary water bodies"
}
},
"Area - comparative": {
"text": "almost 7 times the size of the US"
},
"Coastline": {
"text": "66,526 km"
},
"Climate": {
"text": "northeast monsoon (December to April), southwest monsoon (June to October); tropical cyclones occur during May/June and October/November in the northern Indian Ocean and January/February in the southern Indian Ocean"
},
"Terrain": {
"text": "surface dominated by a major gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the southern Indian Ocean and a unique reversal of surface currents in the northern Indian Ocean; ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge and subdivided by the Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge, Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge, and Ninetyeast Ridge ++ major surface currents: the counterclockwise Indian Ocean Gyre comprised of the southward flowing warm Agulhas and East Madagascar Currents in the west, the eastward flowing South Indian Current in the south, the northward flowing cold West Australian Current in the east, and the westward flowing South Equatorial Current in the north; a distinctive annual reversal of surface currents occurs in the northern Indian Ocean; low atmospheric pressure over southwest Asia from hot, rising, summer air results in the southwest monsoon and southwest-to-northeast winds and clockwise currents, while high pressure over northern Asia from cold, falling, winter air results in the northeast monsoon and northeast-to-southwest winds and counterclockwise currents"
},
"Elevation": {
"mean depth": {
"text": "-3,741 m"
},
"lowest point": {
"text": "Java Trench -7,258 m"
},
"highest point": {
"text": "sea level"
}
},
"Natural resources": {
"text": "oil and gas fields, fish, shrimp, sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules"
},
"Natural hazards": {
"text": "occasional icebergs pose navigational hazard in southern reaches"
},
"Environment - current issues": {
"text": "marine pollution caused by ocean dumping, waste disposal, and oil spills; deep sea mining; oil pollution in Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea; coral reefs threatened due climate change, direct human pressures, and inadequate governance, awareness, and political will; loss of biodiversity; endangered marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales"
},
"Geography - note": {
"text": "major chokepoints include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, southern access to the Suez Canal, and the Lombok Strait"
}
},
"Government": {
"Country name": {
"etymology": {
"text": "named for the country of India, which makes up much of its northern border"
}
}
},
"Economy": {
"Economy - overview": {
"text": "The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, India, and western Australia. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand."
},
"Marine fisheries": {
"text": "the Indian Ocean fisheries are the third most important in the world accounting for 15%, or 12,311,688 mt of the global catch in 2017; tuna, small pelagic fish, and shrimp are important species in these regions; the Food and Agriculture Organization delineated two fishing regions in the Indian Ocean: Eastern Indian Ocean region (Region 57) is the most important region and the fifth largest producing region in the world with more than 8%, or 6,966,875 mt, of the global catch in 2017; the region encompasses the waters north of 55º South latitude and east of 80º East longitude including the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea with the major producers including Indonesia (1,940,190 mt), India (1,431,700 mt), Burma (1,263,080 mt), Bangladesh (637,476 mt), and Sri Lanka (422,842 mt); the principal catches include shad, Skipjack tuna, mackerel, shrimp, and sardinellas Western Indian Ocean region (Region 51) is the world's sixth largest producing region with more than 6% or 5,344,813 mt of the global catch in 2017; this region encompasses the waters north of 40º South latitude and west of 80º East longitude including the western Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea as well as the waters along the east coast of Africa and Madagascar, the south coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and the west coast of India with major producers including India (2,402,878 mt), Pakistan (382,768 mt), Oman (347,539 mt), and Mozambique (232,299 mt); the principal catches include Skipjack and Yellowfin tuna, mackerel, sardines, shrimp, and cephalopods"
}
},
"Transportation": {
"Ports and terminals": {
"major seaport(s)": {
"text": "Chennai (Madras, India); Colombo (Sri Lanka); Durban (South Africa); Jakarta (Indonesia); Kolkata (Calcutta, India); Melbourne (Australia); Mumbai (Bombay, India); Richards Bay (South Africa)"
}
}
},
"Military and Security": {
"Maritime threats": {
"text": "the International Maritime Bureau continues to report the territorial waters of littoral states and offshore waters as high risk for piracy and armed robbery against ships, particularly in the Gulf of Aden, along the east coast of Africa, the Bay of Bengal, and the Strait of Malacca; the presence of several naval task forces in the Gulf of Aden and additional anti-piracy measures on the part of ship operators, including the use of on-board armed security teams, have reduced incidents of piracy; in response, Somali-based pirates, using hijacked fishing trawlers as \"mother ships\" to extend their range, shifted operations as far south as the Mozambique Channel, eastward to the vicinity of the Maldives, and northeastward to the Strait of Hormuz; 2018 saw a slight decrease in attacks over 2017, with one incident in the Gulf of Aden, none in the Red Sea, and two off the coast of Somalia; Operation Ocean Shield, the NATO naval task force established in 2009 to combat Somali piracy, concluded its operations in December 2016 as a result of the drop in reported incidents over the last few years; the EU naval mission, Operation ATALANTA, continues its operations in the Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean through 2020; naval units from Japan, India, and China also operate in conjunction with EU forces; China has established a logistical base in Djibouti to support its deployed naval units in the Horn of Africa ++ the Maritime Administration of the US Department of Transportation has issued a Maritime Advisory (2019-012-Persian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, Gulf of Oman, Arabian Sea, Red Sea-Threats to US and International Shipping from Iran) effective 7 August 2019, which states in part that \"heightened military activities and increased political tensions in this region continue to present risk to commercial shipping...there is a continued possibility that Iran and/or its regional proxies could take actions against US and partner interests in the region;\" at present, Iran has seized two foreign-flagged tankers in the Persian Gulf; the US and UK navies have established Operation Sentinel to provide escorts for commercial shipping transiting the Persian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, and Gulf of Oman"
}
},
"Transnational Issues": {
"Disputes - international": {
"text": "some maritime disputes (see littoral states)"
}
}
{
"Introduction": {
"Background": {
"text": "The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger than the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically important access waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb (Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait of Malacca (Indonesia-Malaysia).The decision by the International Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Ocean south of 60 degrees south latitude."
}
},
"Geography": {
"Location": {
"text": "body of water between Africa, the Southern Ocean, Asia, and Australia"
},
"Geographic coordinates": {
"text": "20 00 S, 80 00 E"
},
"Map references": {
"text": "Political Map of the World"
},
"Area": {
"total": {
"text": "68.556 million sq km"
},
"note": {
"text": "note: includes Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Flores Sea, Great Australian Bight, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Java Sea, Mozambique Channel, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Savu Sea, Strait of Malacca, Timor Sea, and other tributary water bodies"
}
},
"Area - comparative": {
"text": "almost 7 times the size of the US"
},
"Coastline": {
"text": "66,526 km"
},
"Climate": {
"text": "northeast monsoon (December to April), southwest monsoon (June to October); tropical cyclones occur during May/June and October/November in the northern Indian Ocean and January/February in the southern Indian Ocean"
},
"Terrain": {
"text": "surface dominated by a major gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the southern Indian Ocean and a unique reversal of surface currents in the northern Indian Ocean; ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge and subdivided by the Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge, Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge, and Ninetyeast Ridge ++ major surface currents: the counterclockwise Indian Ocean Gyre comprised of the southward flowing warm Agulhas and East Madagascar Currents in the west, the eastward flowing South Indian Current in the south, the northward flowing cold West Australian Current in the east, and the westward flowing South Equatorial Current in the north; a distinctive annual reversal of surface currents occurs in the northern Indian Ocean; low atmospheric pressure over southwest Asia from hot, rising, summer air results in the southwest monsoon and southwest-to-northeast winds and clockwise currents, while high pressure over northern Asia from cold, falling, winter air results in the northeast monsoon and northeast-to-southwest winds and counterclockwise currents"
},
"Elevation": {
"mean depth": {
"text": "-3,741 m"
},
"lowest point": {
"text": "Java Trench -7,258 m"
},
"highest point": {
"text": "sea level"
}
},
"Natural resources": {
"text": "oil and gas fields, fish, shrimp, sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules"
},
"Natural hazards": {
"text": "occasional icebergs pose navigational hazard in southern reaches"
},
"Environment - current issues": {
"text": "marine pollution caused by ocean dumping, waste disposal, and oil spills; deep sea mining; oil pollution in Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea; coral reefs threatened due climate change, direct human pressures, and inadequate governance, awareness, and political will; loss of biodiversity; endangered marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales"
},
"Geography - note": {
"text": "major chokepoints include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, southern access to the Suez Canal, and the Lombok Strait"
}
},
"Government": {
"Country name": {
"etymology": {
"text": "named for the country of India, which makes up much of its northern border"
}
}
},
"Economy": {
"Economy - overview": {
"text": "The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, India, and western Australia. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand."
},
"Marine fisheries": {
"text": "the Indian Ocean fisheries are the third most important in the world accounting for 15%, or 12,311,688 mt of the global catch in 2017; tuna, small pelagic fish, and shrimp are important species in these regions; the Food and Agriculture Organization delineated two fishing regions in the Indian Ocean: Eastern Indian Ocean region (Region 57) is the most important region and the fifth largest producing region in the world with more than 8%, or 6,966,875 mt, of the global catch in 2017; the region encompasses the waters north of 55º South latitude and east of 80º East longitude including the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea with the major producers including Indonesia (1,940,190 mt), India (1,431,700 mt), Burma (1,263,080 mt), Bangladesh (637,476 mt), and Sri Lanka (422,842 mt); the principal catches include shad, Skipjack tuna, mackerel, shrimp, and sardinellas Western Indian Ocean region (Region 51) is the world's sixth largest producing region with more than 6% or 5,344,813 mt of the global catch in 2017; this region encompasses the waters north of 40º South latitude and west of 80º East longitude including the western Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea as well as the waters along the east coast of Africa and Madagascar, the south coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and the west coast of India with major producers including India (2,402,878 mt), Pakistan (382,768 mt), Oman (347,539 mt), and Mozambique (232,299 mt); the principal catches include Skipjack and Yellowfin tuna, mackerel, sardines, shrimp, and cephalopods"
}
},
"Transportation": {
"Ports and terminals": {
"major seaport(s)": {
"text": "Chennai (Madras, India); Colombo (Sri Lanka); Durban (South Africa); Jakarta (Indonesia); Kolkata (Calcutta, India); Melbourne (Australia); Mumbai (Bombay, India); Richards Bay (South Africa)"
}
}
},
"Military and Security": {
"Maritime threats": {
"text": "the International Maritime Bureau continues to report the territorial waters of littoral states and offshore waters as high risk for piracy and armed robbery against ships, particularly in the Gulf of Aden, along the east coast of Africa, the Bay of Bengal, and the Strait of Malacca; the presence of several naval task forces in the Gulf of Aden and additional anti-piracy measures on the part of ship operators, including the use of on-board armed security teams, have reduced incidents of piracy; in response, Somali-based pirates, using hijacked fishing trawlers as \"mother ships\" to extend their range, shifted operations as far south as the Mozambique Channel, eastward to the vicinity of the Maldives, and northeastward to the Strait of Hormuz; 2018 saw a slight decrease in attacks over 2017, with one incident in the Gulf of Aden, none in the Red Sea, and two off the coast of Somalia; Operation Ocean Shield, the NATO naval task force established in 2009 to combat Somali piracy, concluded its operations in December 2016 as a result of the drop in reported incidents over the last few years; the EU naval mission, Operation ATALANTA, continues its operations in the Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean through 2020; naval units from Japan, India, and China also operate in conjunction with EU forces; China has established a logistical base in Djibouti to support its deployed naval units in the Horn of Africa ++ the Maritime Administration of the US Department of Transportation has issued a Maritime Advisory (2019-012-Persian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, Gulf of Oman, Arabian Sea, Red Sea-Threats to US and International Shipping from Iran) effective 7 August 2019, which states in part that \"heightened military activities and increased political tensions in this region continue to present risk to commercial shipping...there is a continued possibility that Iran and/or its regional proxies could take actions against US and partner interests in the region;\" at present, Iran has seized two foreign-flagged tankers in the Persian Gulf; the US and UK navies have established Operation Sentinel to provide escorts for commercial shipping transiting the Persian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, and Gulf of Oman"
}
},
"Transnational Issues": {
"Disputes - international": {
"text": "some maritime disputes (see littoral states)"
}
}
}

184
oceans/xq.json
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@ -1,93 +1,93 @@
{
"Introduction": {
"Background": {
"text": "The Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and the Southern Ocean). The Northwest Passage (US and Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are two important seasonal waterways. In recent years the polar ice pack has receded in the summer allowing for increased navigation and raising the possibility of future sovereignty and shipping disputes among the six countries bordering the Arctic Ocean (Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, US)."
}
},
"Geography": {
"Location": {
"text": "body of water between Europe, Asia, and North America, mostly north of the Arctic Circle"
},
"Geographic coordinates": {
"text": "90 00 N, 0 00 E"
},
"Map references": {
"text": "Arctic Region"
},
"Area": {
"total": {
"text": "14.056 million sq km"
},
"note": {
"text": "note: includes Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, Northwest Passage, and other tributary water bodies"
}
},
"Area - comparative": {
"text": "slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US"
},
"Coastline": {
"text": "45,389 km"
},
"Climate": {
"text": "polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature range; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow"
},
"Terrain": {
"text": "central surface covered by a perennial drifting polar icepack that, on average, is about 3 m thick, although pressure ridges may be three times that thickness; the icepack is surrounded by open seas during the summer, but more than doubles in size during the winter and extends to the encircling landmasses; the ocean floor is about 50% continental shelf (highest percentage of any ocean) with the remainder a central basin interrupted by three submarine ridges (Alpha Cordillera, Nansen Cordillera, and Lomonosov Ridge) ++ major surface currents: two major, slow-moving, wind-driven currents (drift streams) dominate: a clockwise drift pattern in the Beaufort Gyre in the western part of the Arctic Ocean and a nearly straight line Transpolar Drift Stream that moves eastward across the ocean from the New Siberian Islands (Russia) to the Fram Strait (between Greenland and Svalbard); sea ice that lies close to the center of the gyre can complete a 360 degree circle in about 2 years, while ice on the gyre periphery will complete the same circle in about 7-8 years; sea ice in the Transpolar Drift crosses the ocean in about 3 years"
},
"Elevation": {
"mean depth": {
"text": "-1,205 m"
},
"lowest point": {
"text": "Molloy Deep -5,607 m"
},
"highest point": {
"text": "sea level"
}
},
"Natural resources": {
"text": "sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, oil and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales)"
},
"Natural hazards": {
"text": "ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada; permafrost in islands; virtually ice locked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May"
},
"Environment - current issues": {
"text": "climate change; changes in biodiversity; use of toxic chemicals; endangered marine species include walruses and whales; fragile ecosystem slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage; thinning polar icepack"
},
"Geography - note": {
"text": "major chokepoint is the southern Chukchi Sea (northern access to the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait); strategic location between North America and Russia; shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia; floating research stations operated by the US and Russia; maximum snow cover in March or April about 20 to 50 centimeters over the frozen ocean; snow cover lasts about 10 months"
}
},
"People and Society": {
},
"Government": {
"Country name": {
"etymology": {
"text": "the name Arctic comes from the Greek word \"arktikos\" meaning \"near the bear\" or \"northern,\" and that word derives from \"arktos,\" meaning \"bear\"; the name refers either to the constellation Ursa Major, the \"Great Bear,\" which is prominent in the northern celestial sphere, or to the constellation Ursa Minor, the \"Little Bear,\" which contains Polaris, the North (Pole) Star"
}
}
},
"Economy": {
"Economy - overview": {
"text": "Economic activity is limited to the exploitation of natural resources, including petroleum, natural gas, fish, and seals."
},
"Marine fisheries": {
"text": "the Arctic fishery region (Region 18) is the smallest in the world with a catch of only 418 mt in 2017, although the Food and Agriculture Organization assesses that some Arctic catches are reported in adjacent regions; Russia and Canada were historically the major producers; in 2017, the five littoral states including Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway, Russia, and the US agreed to a 16 year ban on fishing in the Central Arctic Ocean to allow for time to study the ecological system of these waters"
}
},
"Transportation": {
"Ports and terminals": {
"major seaport(s)": {
"text": "Churchill (Canada), Murmansk (Russia), Prudhoe Bay (US)"
}
},
"Transportation - note": {
"text": "sparse network of air, ocean, river, and land routes; the Northwest Passage (North America) and Northern Sea Route (Eurasia) are important seasonal waterways"
}
},
"Transnational Issues": {
"Disputes - international": {
"text": "Canada and the US dispute how to divide the Beaufort Sea and the status of the Northwest Passage but continue to work cooperatively to survey the Arctic continental shelf; Denmark (Greenland) and Norway have made submissions to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental shelf (CLCS) and Russia is collecting additional data to augment its 2001 CLCS submission; record summer melting of sea ice in the Arctic has renewed interest in maritime shipping lanes and sea floor exploration; Norway and Russia signed a comprehensive maritime boundary agreement in 2010"
}
}
{
"Introduction": {
"Background": {
"text": "The Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and the Southern Ocean). The Northwest Passage (US and Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are two important seasonal waterways. In recent years the polar ice pack has receded in the summer allowing for increased navigation and raising the possibility of future sovereignty and shipping disputes among the six countries bordering the Arctic Ocean (Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, US)."
}
},
"Geography": {
"Location": {
"text": "body of water between Europe, Asia, and North America, mostly north of the Arctic Circle"
},
"Geographic coordinates": {
"text": "90 00 N, 0 00 E"
},
"Map references": {
"text": "Arctic Region"
},
"Area": {
"total": {
"text": "14.056 million sq km"
},
"note": {
"text": "note: includes Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, Northwest Passage, and other tributary water bodies"
}
},
"Area - comparative": {
"text": "slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US"
},
"Coastline": {
"text": "45,389 km"
},
"Climate": {
"text": "polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature range; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow"
},
"Terrain": {
"text": "central surface covered by a perennial drifting polar icepack that, on average, is about 3 m thick, although pressure ridges may be three times that thickness; the icepack is surrounded by open seas during the summer, but more than doubles in size during the winter and extends to the encircling landmasses; the ocean floor is about 50% continental shelf (highest percentage of any ocean) with the remainder a central basin interrupted by three submarine ridges (Alpha Cordillera, Nansen Cordillera, and Lomonosov Ridge) ++ major surface currents: two major, slow-moving, wind-driven currents (drift streams) dominate: a clockwise drift pattern in the Beaufort Gyre in the western part of the Arctic Ocean and a nearly straight line Transpolar Drift Stream that moves eastward across the ocean from the New Siberian Islands (Russia) to the Fram Strait (between Greenland and Svalbard); sea ice that lies close to the center of the gyre can complete a 360 degree circle in about 2 years, while ice on the gyre periphery will complete the same circle in about 7-8 years; sea ice in the Transpolar Drift crosses the ocean in about 3 years"
},
"Elevation": {
"mean depth": {
"text": "-1,205 m"
},
"lowest point": {
"text": "Molloy Deep -5,607 m"
},
"highest point": {
"text": "sea level"
}
},
"Natural resources": {
"text": "sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, oil and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales)"
},
"Natural hazards": {
"text": "ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada; permafrost in islands; virtually ice locked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May"
},
"Environment - current issues": {
"text": "climate change; changes in biodiversity; use of toxic chemicals; endangered marine species include walruses and whales; fragile ecosystem slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage; thinning polar icepack"
},
"Geography - note": {
"text": "major chokepoint is the southern Chukchi Sea (northern access to the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait); strategic location between North America and Russia; shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia; floating research stations operated by the US and Russia; maximum snow cover in March or April about 20 to 50 centimeters over the frozen ocean; snow cover lasts about 10 months"
}
},
"People and Society": {
},
"Government": {
"Country name": {
"etymology": {
"text": "the name Arctic comes from the Greek word \"arktikos\" meaning \"near the bear\" or \"northern,\" and that word derives from \"arktos,\" meaning \"bear\"; the name refers either to the constellation Ursa Major, the \"Great Bear,\" which is prominent in the northern celestial sphere, or to the constellation Ursa Minor, the \"Little Bear,\" which contains Polaris, the North (Pole) Star"
}
}
},
"Economy": {
"Economy - overview": {
"text": "Economic activity is limited to the exploitation of natural resources, including petroleum, natural gas, fish, and seals."
},
"Marine fisheries": {
"text": "the Arctic fishery region (Region 18) is the smallest in the world with a catch of only 418 mt in 2017, although the Food and Agriculture Organization assesses that some Arctic catches are reported in adjacent regions; Russia and Canada were historically the major producers; in 2017, the five littoral states including Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway, Russia, and the US agreed to a 16 year ban on fishing in the Central Arctic Ocean to allow for time to study the ecological system of these waters"
}
},
"Transportation": {
"Ports and terminals": {
"major seaport(s)": {
"text": "Churchill (Canada), Murmansk (Russia), Prudhoe Bay (US)"
}
},
"Transportation - note": {
"text": "sparse network of air, ocean, river, and land routes; the Northwest Passage (North America) and Northern Sea Route (Eurasia) are important seasonal waterways"
}
},
"Transnational Issues": {
"Disputes - international": {
"text": "Canada and the US dispute how to divide the Beaufort Sea and the status of the Northwest Passage but continue to work cooperatively to survey the Arctic continental shelf; Denmark (Greenland) and Norway have made submissions to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental shelf (CLCS) and Russia is collecting additional data to augment its 2001 CLCS submission; record summer melting of sea ice in the Arctic has renewed interest in maritime shipping lanes and sea floor exploration; Norway and Russia signed a comprehensive maritime boundary agreement in 2010"
}
}
}

190
oceans/zh.json
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@ -1,96 +1,96 @@
{
"Introduction": {
"Background": {
"text": "The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, but larger than the Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). The Kiel Canal (Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait of Gibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US) are important strategic access waterways.The decision by the International Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth world ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Atlantic Ocean south of 60 degrees south latitude."
}
},
"Geography": {
"Location": {
"text": "body of water between Africa, Europe, the Arctic Ocean, the Americas, and the Southern Ocean"
},
"Geographic coordinates": {
"text": "0 00 N, 25 00 W"
},
"Map references": {
"text": "Political Map of the World"
},
"Area": {
"total": {
"text": "76.762 million sq km"
},
"note": {
"text": "note: includes Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caribbean Sea, Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, part of the Drake Passage, Gulf of Mexico, Labrador Sea, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Norwegian Sea, almost all of the Scotia Sea, and other tributary water bodies"
}
},
"Area - comparative": {
"text": "about 7.5 times the size of the US"
},
"Coastline": {
"text": "111,866 km"
},
"Climate": {
"text": "tropical cyclones (hurricanes) develop off the coast of Africa near Cabo Verde and move westward into the Caribbean Sea; hurricanes can occur from May to December but are most frequent from August to November"
},
"Terrain": {
"text": "surface usually covered with sea ice in Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and coastal portions of the Baltic Sea from October to June; surface dominated by two large gyres (broad, circular systems of currents), one in the northern Atlantic and another in the southern Atlantic; the ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin ++ major surface currents: clockwise North Atlantic Gyre consists of the northward flowing, warm Gulf Stream in the west, the eastward flowing North Atlantic Current in the north, the southward flowing cold Canary Current in the east, and the westward flowing North Equatorial Current in the south; the counterclockwise South Atlantic Gyre composed of the southward flowing warm Brazil Current in the west, the eastward flowing South Atlantic Current in the south, the northward flowing cold Benguela Current in the east, and the westward flowing South Equatorial Current in the north"
},
"Elevation": {
"mean depth": {
"text": "-3,646 m"
},
"lowest point": {
"text": "Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico Trench -8,605 m"
},
"highest point": {
"text": "sea level"
}
},
"Natural resources": {
"text": "oil and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales), sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, precious stones"
},
"Natural hazards": {
"text": "icebergs common in Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have been spotted as far south as Bermuda and the Madeira Islands; ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme northern Atlantic from October to May; persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September; hurricanes (May to December)"
},
"Environment - current issues": {
"text": "endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales; unsustainable exploitation of fisheries (over fishing, bottom trawling, drift net fishing, discards, catch of non-target species); pollution (maritime transport, discharges, offshore drilling, oil spills); municipal sludge pollution off eastern US, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea"
},
"Geography - note": {
"text": "major chokepoints include the Dardanelles, Strait of Gibraltar, access to the Panama and Suez Canals; strategic straits include the Strait of Dover, Straits of Florida, Mona Passage, The Sound (Oresund), and Windward Passage; the Equator divides the Atlantic Ocean into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean"
}
},
"Government": {
"Country name": {
"etymology": {
"text": "name derives from the Greek description of the waters beyond the Strait of Gibraltar, Atlantis thalassa, meaning \"Sea of Atlas\""
}
}
},
"Economy": {
"Economy - overview": {
"text": "The Atlantic Ocean provides some of the world's most heavily trafficked sea routes, between and within the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Other economic activity includes the exploitation of natural resources, e.g., fishing, dredging of aragonite sands (The Bahamas), and production of crude oil and natural gas (Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and North Sea)."
},
"Marine fisheries": {
"text": "the Atlantic Ocean fisheries are the second most important in the world accounting for 28%, or 22,434,652 mt, of the global catch in 2017; of the seven regions delineated by the Food and Agriculture Organization in the Atlantic basin, the most important include the following: Northeast Atlantic region (Region 27) is the third most important in the world producing more than 11% of the global catch or 9,309,821 mt in 2017; the region encompasses the waters north of 36º North latitude and east of 40º West longitude with the major producers including Norway (2,208,175 mt), Iceland (1,163,166 mt), Russia (1,105,548 mt), UK (717,545 mt), and Denmark (901,939 mt); the region includes the historically important fishing grounds of the North Sea, the Baltic Sea, and the Atlantic waters between Greenland, Iceland, and the British Isles; the principal catches include Atlantic cod, haddock, saithe (pollock), Blue Whiting, herring, and mackerel; not all fish caught are for human consumption, half of fish catches in the North Sea are processed as fish oil or fish meal, which are used in animal fodder ++ Eastern Central Atlantic region (Region 34) is the second most important Atlantic fishery, and seventh largest in the world producing more than 6% of the global catch or 5,085,264 mt in 2017; the region encompasses the waters between 36º North and 6º South latitude and east of 40º West longitude off the west coast of Africa with the major producers including Morocco (1,336,787 mt), Mauritania (779,580 mt), Nigeria (496,206 mt), Senegal (464,199 mt), Ghana (291,904 mt), Cameroon (205,190 mt), and Sierra Leone (200,000 mt); the principal catches include pilchard, sardinellas, shad, and mackerel ++ Northwest Atlantic region (Region 21) is the third most important Atlantic fishery and ninth in the world producing a little more than 2% of the global catch and 1,755,861 mt in 2017; it encompasses the waters north of 35º North latitude and west of 42º West longitude including the important fishing grounds over the continental shelf of North America such as the Grand Banks, the Georges Bank, and the Flemish Cap, as well as Baffin Bay with the major producers including the US (889,668 mt), Canada (624,747 mt), and Greenland (169,830 mt); the principal catches include sea scallops, prawns, lobster, herring, and menhaden ++ Mediterranean and Black Sea region (Region 37) is a minor fishing region representing 1.6% or 1,348,299 mt of the world's total capture in 2017; the region encompasses all waters east of the Strait of Gibraltar with the major producers including Turkey (322,175 mt), Italy (185,067 mt), Tunisia (109,636 mt), Russia (90,883 mt), and Spain (86,342 mt); the principal catches include European anchovy, European pilchard, Gobies, and clams"
}
},
"Transportation": {
"Ports and terminals": {
"major seaport(s)": {
"text": "Alexandria (Egypt), Algiers (Algeria), Antwerp (Belgium), Barcelona (Spain), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Casablanca (Morocco), Colon (Panama), Copenhagen (Denmark), Dakar (Senegal), Gdansk (Poland), Hamburg (Germany), Helsinki (Finland), Las Palmas (Canary Islands, Spain), Le Havre (France), Lisbon (Portugal), London (UK), Marseille (France), Montevideo (Uruguay), Montreal (Canada), Naples (Italy), New Orleans (US), New York (US), Oran (Algeria), Oslo (Norway), Peiraiefs or Piraeus (Greece), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Rotterdam (Netherlands), Saint Petersburg (Russia), Stockholm (Sweden)"
}
},
"Transportation - note": {
"text": "Kiel Canal and Saint Lawrence Seaway are two important waterways; significant domestic commercial and recreational use of Intracoastal Waterway on central and south Atlantic seaboard and Gulf of Mexico coast of US; the International Maritime Bureau reports the territorial waters of littoral states and offshore Atlantic waters as high risk for piracy and armed robbery against ships, particularly in the Gulf of Guinea off West Africa; in 2014, 41 commercial vessels were attacked in the Gulf of Guinea with 5 hijacked and 144 crew members taken hostage; hijacked vessels are often disguised and cargoes stolen; crews have been robbed and stores or cargoes stolen"
}
},
"Military and Security": {
"Maritime threats": {
"text": "West African piracy more than doubled in 2018 totaling 85 attacks, including all of the six ships highjacked during the year; 13 of the 18 vessels fired upon world-wide occurred in West African waters; Nigerian pirates are very aggresive, operating as far as 200 nm offshore and boarded 29 ships in 2018; the Maritime Administration of the US Department of Transportation has issued a Maritime Advisory (2019-010-Gulf of Guinea-Piracy/Armed Robbery/Kidnapping for Ransom) effective 19 July 2019, which states in part \"Piracy, armed robbery, and kidnapping for ransom (KFR) continue to serve as significant threats to U.S. flagged vessels transiting or operating in the Gulf of Guinea (GoG). ...According to the Office of Naval Intelligence's “Weekly Piracy Reports” 72 reported incidents of piracy and armed robbery at sea occurred in the GoG region this year as of July 9, 2019. Attacks, kidnappings for ransom (KFR), and boardings to steal valuables from the ships and crews are the most common types of incidents with approximately 75 percent of all incidents taking place off Nigeria. During the first six months of 2019, there were 15 kidnapping and 3 hijackings in the GoG.\""
}
},
"Transnational Issues": {
"Disputes - international": {
"text": "some maritime disputes (see littoral states)"
}
}
{
"Introduction": {
"Background": {
"text": "The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, but larger than the Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). The Kiel Canal (Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait of Gibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US) are important strategic access waterways.The decision by the International Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth world ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Atlantic Ocean south of 60 degrees south latitude."
}
},
"Geography": {
"Location": {
"text": "body of water between Africa, Europe, the Arctic Ocean, the Americas, and the Southern Ocean"
},
"Geographic coordinates": {
"text": "0 00 N, 25 00 W"
},
"Map references": {
"text": "Political Map of the World"
},
"Area": {
"total": {
"text": "76.762 million sq km"
},
"note": {
"text": "note: includes Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caribbean Sea, Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, part of the Drake Passage, Gulf of Mexico, Labrador Sea, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Norwegian Sea, almost all of the Scotia Sea, and other tributary water bodies"
}
},
"Area - comparative": {
"text": "about 7.5 times the size of the US"
},
"Coastline": {
"text": "111,866 km"
},
"Climate": {
"text": "tropical cyclones (hurricanes) develop off the coast of Africa near Cabo Verde and move westward into the Caribbean Sea; hurricanes can occur from May to December but are most frequent from August to November"
},
"Terrain": {
"text": "surface usually covered with sea ice in Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and coastal portions of the Baltic Sea from October to June; surface dominated by two large gyres (broad, circular systems of currents), one in the northern Atlantic and another in the southern Atlantic; the ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin ++ major surface currents: clockwise North Atlantic Gyre consists of the northward flowing, warm Gulf Stream in the west, the eastward flowing North Atlantic Current in the north, the southward flowing cold Canary Current in the east, and the westward flowing North Equatorial Current in the south; the counterclockwise South Atlantic Gyre composed of the southward flowing warm Brazil Current in the west, the eastward flowing South Atlantic Current in the south, the northward flowing cold Benguela Current in the east, and the westward flowing South Equatorial Current in the north"
},
"Elevation": {
"mean depth": {
"text": "-3,646 m"
},
"lowest point": {
"text": "Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico Trench -8,605 m"
},
"highest point": {
"text": "sea level"
}
},
"Natural resources": {
"text": "oil and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales), sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, precious stones"
},
"Natural hazards": {
"text": "icebergs common in Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have been spotted as far south as Bermuda and the Madeira Islands; ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme northern Atlantic from October to May; persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September; hurricanes (May to December)"
},
"Environment - current issues": {
"text": "endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales; unsustainable exploitation of fisheries (over fishing, bottom trawling, drift net fishing, discards, catch of non-target species); pollution (maritime transport, discharges, offshore drilling, oil spills); municipal sludge pollution off eastern US, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea"
},
"Geography - note": {
"text": "major chokepoints include the Dardanelles, Strait of Gibraltar, access to the Panama and Suez Canals; strategic straits include the Strait of Dover, Straits of Florida, Mona Passage, The Sound (Oresund), and Windward Passage; the Equator divides the Atlantic Ocean into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean"
}
},
"Government": {
"Country name": {
"etymology": {
"text": "name derives from the Greek description of the waters beyond the Strait of Gibraltar, Atlantis thalassa, meaning \"Sea of Atlas\""
}
}
},
"Economy": {
"Economy - overview": {
"text": "The Atlantic Ocean provides some of the world's most heavily trafficked sea routes, between and within the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Other economic activity includes the exploitation of natural resources, e.g., fishing, dredging of aragonite sands (The Bahamas), and production of crude oil and natural gas (Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and North Sea)."
},
"Marine fisheries": {
"text": "the Atlantic Ocean fisheries are the second most important in the world accounting for 28%, or 22,434,652 mt, of the global catch in 2017; of the seven regions delineated by the Food and Agriculture Organization in the Atlantic basin, the most important include the following: Northeast Atlantic region (Region 27) is the third most important in the world producing more than 11% of the global catch or 9,309,821 mt in 2017; the region encompasses the waters north of 36º North latitude and east of 40º West longitude with the major producers including Norway (2,208,175 mt), Iceland (1,163,166 mt), Russia (1,105,548 mt), UK (717,545 mt), and Denmark (901,939 mt); the region includes the historically important fishing grounds of the North Sea, the Baltic Sea, and the Atlantic waters between Greenland, Iceland, and the British Isles; the principal catches include Atlantic cod, haddock, saithe (pollock), Blue Whiting, herring, and mackerel; not all fish caught are for human consumption, half of fish catches in the North Sea are processed as fish oil or fish meal, which are used in animal fodder ++ Eastern Central Atlantic region (Region 34) is the second most important Atlantic fishery, and seventh largest in the world producing more than 6% of the global catch or 5,085,264 mt in 2017; the region encompasses the waters between 36º North and 6º South latitude and east of 40º West longitude off the west coast of Africa with the major producers including Morocco (1,336,787 mt), Mauritania (779,580 mt), Nigeria (496,206 mt), Senegal (464,199 mt), Ghana (291,904 mt), Cameroon (205,190 mt), and Sierra Leone (200,000 mt); the principal catches include pilchard, sardinellas, shad, and mackerel ++ Northwest Atlantic region (Region 21) is the third most important Atlantic fishery and ninth in the world producing a little more than 2% of the global catch and 1,755,861 mt in 2017; it encompasses the waters north of 35º North latitude and west of 42º West longitude including the important fishing grounds over the continental shelf of North America such as the Grand Banks, the Georges Bank, and the Flemish Cap, as well as Baffin Bay with the major producers including the US (889,668 mt), Canada (624,747 mt), and Greenland (169,830 mt); the principal catches include sea scallops, prawns, lobster, herring, and menhaden ++ Mediterranean and Black Sea region (Region 37) is a minor fishing region representing 1.6% or 1,348,299 mt of the world's total capture in 2017; the region encompasses all waters east of the Strait of Gibraltar with the major producers including Turkey (322,175 mt), Italy (185,067 mt), Tunisia (109,636 mt), Russia (90,883 mt), and Spain (86,342 mt); the principal catches include European anchovy, European pilchard, Gobies, and clams"
}
},
"Transportation": {
"Ports and terminals": {
"major seaport(s)": {
"text": "Alexandria (Egypt), Algiers (Algeria), Antwerp (Belgium), Barcelona (Spain), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Casablanca (Morocco), Colon (Panama), Copenhagen (Denmark), Dakar (Senegal), Gdansk (Poland), Hamburg (Germany), Helsinki (Finland), Las Palmas (Canary Islands, Spain), Le Havre (France), Lisbon (Portugal), London (UK), Marseille (France), Montevideo (Uruguay), Montreal (Canada), Naples (Italy), New Orleans (US), New York (US), Oran (Algeria), Oslo (Norway), Peiraiefs or Piraeus (Greece), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Rotterdam (Netherlands), Saint Petersburg (Russia), Stockholm (Sweden)"
}
},
"Transportation - note": {
"text": "Kiel Canal and Saint Lawrence Seaway are two important waterways; significant domestic commercial and recreational use of Intracoastal Waterway on central and south Atlantic seaboard and Gulf of Mexico coast of US; the International Maritime Bureau reports the territorial waters of littoral states and offshore Atlantic waters as high risk for piracy and armed robbery against ships, particularly in the Gulf of Guinea off West Africa; in 2014, 41 commercial vessels were attacked in the Gulf of Guinea with 5 hijacked and 144 crew members taken hostage; hijacked vessels are often disguised and cargoes stolen; crews have been robbed and stores or cargoes stolen"
}
},
"Military and Security": {
"Maritime threats": {
"text": "West African piracy more than doubled in 2018 totaling 85 attacks, including all of the six ships highjacked during the year; 13 of the 18 vessels fired upon world-wide occurred in West African waters; Nigerian pirates are very aggresive, operating as far as 200 nm offshore and boarded 29 ships in 2018; the Maritime Administration of the US Department of Transportation has issued a Maritime Advisory (2019-010-Gulf of Guinea-Piracy/Armed Robbery/Kidnapping for Ransom) effective 19 July 2019, which states in part \"Piracy, armed robbery, and kidnapping for ransom (KFR) continue to serve as significant threats to U.S. flagged vessels transiting or operating in the Gulf of Guinea (GoG). ...According to the Office of Naval Intelligence's “Weekly Piracy Reports” 72 reported incidents of piracy and armed robbery at sea occurred in the GoG region this year as of July 9, 2019. Attacks, kidnappings for ransom (KFR), and boardings to steal valuables from the ships and crews are the most common types of incidents with approximately 75 percent of all incidents taking place off Nigeria. During the first six months of 2019, there were 15 kidnapping and 3 hijackings in the GoG.\""
}
},
"Transnational Issues": {
"Disputes - international": {
"text": "some maritime disputes (see littoral states)"
}
}
}

184
oceans/zn.json
View file

@ -1,93 +1,93 @@
{
"Introduction": {
"Background": {
"text": "The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's five oceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). Strategically important access waterways include the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, and Torres Straits.The decision by the International Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Pacific Ocean south of 60 degrees south."
}
},
"Geography": {
"Location": {
"text": "body of water between the Southern Ocean, Asia, Australia, and the Western Hemisphere"
},
"Geographic coordinates": {
"text": "0 00 N, 160 00 W"
},
"Map references": {
"text": "Political Map of the World"
},
"Area": {
"total": {
"text": "155.557 million sq km"
},
"note": {
"text": "note: includes Bali Sea, Bering Sea, Bering Strait, Coral Sea, East China Sea, Gulf of Alaska, Gulf of Tonkin, Philippine Sea, Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk, South China Sea, Tasman Sea, and other tributary water bodies"
}
},
"Area - comparative": {
"text": "about 15 times the size of the US; covers about 28% of the global surface; almost equal to the total land area of the world"
},
"Coastline": {
"text": "135,663 km"
},
"Climate": {
"text": "planetary air pressure systems and resultant wind patterns exhibit remarkable uniformity in the south and east; trade winds and westerly winds are well-developed patterns, modified by seasonal fluctuations; tropical cyclones (hurricanes) may form south of Mexico from June to October and affect Mexico and Central America; continental influences cause climatic uniformity to be much less pronounced in the eastern and western regions at the same latitude in the North Pacific Ocean; the western Pacific is monsoonal - a rainy season occurs during the summer months, when moisture-laden winds blow from the ocean over the land, and a dry season during the winter months, when dry winds blow from the Asian landmass back to the ocean; tropical cyclones (typhoons) may strike southeast and east Asia from May to December"
},
"Terrain": {
"text": "surface dominated by two large gyres (broad, circular systems of currents), one in the northern Pacific and another in the southern Pacific; in the northern Pacific, sea ice forms in the Bering Sea and Sea of Okhotsk in winter; in the southern Pacific, sea ice from Antarctica reaches its northernmost extent in October; the ocean floor in the eastern Pacific is dominated by the East Pacific Rise, while the western Pacific is dissected by deep trenches, including the Mariana Trench, which is the world's deepest at 10,924 m ++ major surface currents: clockwise North Pacific Gyre formed by the warm northward flowing Kuroshio Current in the west, the eastward flowing North Pacific Current in the north, the southward flowing cold California Current in the east, and the westward flowing North Equatorial Current in the south; the counterclockwise South Pacific Gyre composed of the southward flowing warm East Australian Current in the west, the eastward flowing South Pacific Current in the south, the northward flowing cold Peru (Humbolt) Current in the east, and the westward flowing South Equatorial Current in the north"
},
"Elevation": {
"mean depth": {
"text": "-2,970 m"
},
"lowest point": {
"text": "Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench -10,924 m"
},
"highest point": {
"text": "sea level"
}
},
"Natural resources": {
"text": "oil and gas fields, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, fish"
},
"Natural hazards": {
"text": "surrounded by a zone of violent volcanic and earthquake activity sometimes referred to as the \"Pacific Ring of Fire\"; subject to tropical cyclones (typhoons) in southeast and east Asia from May to December (most frequent from July to October); tropical cyclones (hurricanes) may form south of Mexico and strike Central America and Mexico from June to October (most common in August and September); cyclical El Nino/La Nina phenomenon occurs in the equatorial Pacific, influencing weather in the Western Hemisphere and the western Pacific;ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme north from October to May; persistent fog in the northern Pacific can be a maritime hazard from June to December"
},
"Environment - current issues": {
"text": "pollution (such as sewage, runoff from land and toxic waste); habitat destruction; over-fishing; climate change leading to sea level rise, ocean acidification, and warming; endangered marine species include the dugong, sea lion, sea otter, seals, turtles, and whales; oil pollution in Philippine Sea and South China Sea"
},
"Geography - note": {
"text": "the major chokepoints are the Bering Strait, Panama Canal, Luzon Strait, and the Singapore Strait; the Equator divides the Pacific Ocean into the North Pacific Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean; dotted with low coral islands and rugged volcanic islands in the southwestern Pacific Ocean; much of the Pacific Ocean's rim lies along the Ring of Fire, a belt of active volcanoes and earthquake epicenters that accounts for up to 90% of the world's earthquakes and some 75% of the world's volcanoes"
}
},
"Government": {
"Country name": {
"etymology": {
"text": "named by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand MAGELLAN during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521; encountering favorable winds upon reaching the ocean, he called it \"Mar Pacifico,\" which means \"peaceful sea\" in both Portuguese and Spanish"
}
}
},
"Economy": {
"Economy - overview": {
"text": "The Pacific Ocean is a major contributor to the world economy and particularly to those nations its waters directly touch. It provides low-cost sea transportation between East and West, extensive fishing grounds, offshore oil and gas fields, minerals, and sand and gravel for the construction industry. In 1996, over 60% of the world's fish catch came from the Pacific Ocean. Exploitation of offshore oil and gas reserves is playing an ever-increasing role in the energy supplies of the US, Australia, NZ, China, and Peru. The high cost of recovering offshore oil and gas, combined with the wide swings in world prices for oil since 1985, has led to fluctuations in new drillings."
},
"Marine fisheries": {
"text": "the Pacific Ocean fisheries are the most important in the world accounting for 56.6%, or 45,580,140 mt, of the global marine capture in 2017; of the six regions delineated by the Food and Agriculture Organization in the Pacific Ocean, the following are the most important: Northwest Pacific region (Region 61) is the world's most important fishery producing 25% of the global catch or 20,234,899 mt in 2017; it encompasses the waters north of 20º north latitude and west of 175º west longitude with the major producers including China (12,589,877 mt), Japan (2,917,663 mt), South Korea (948,670 mt), and Taiwan (341,260 mt); the principal catches include Alaska Pollock, Japanese anchovy, chub mackerel, and scads ++ Western Central Pacific region (Region 71) is the world's second most important fishing region producing 15%, or 12,530,652 mt, of the global catch in 2017; tuna is the most important species in this region; the region includes the waters between 20º North and 25º South latitude and west of 175º West longitude with the major producers including Indonesia (4,281,018 mt), Vietnam (3,118,696 mt), Philippines (1,724,272 mt), Thailand (912,863 mt), and Malaysia (741,561 mt); the principal catches include Skipjack and Yellowfin tuna, sardinellas, and cephalopods ++ Southeast Pacific region (Region 87) is the third major Pacific fishery and fourth largest in the world producing 9%, or 7,223,740 mt, of the global catch in 2017; this region includes the nutrient rich upwelling waters off the west coast of South America between 5º North and 60º South latitude and east of 120º West longitude with the major producers including Peru (4,128,760 mt), Chile (1,918,611 mt), and Ecuador (554,961 mt); the principal catches include Peruvian anchovy (50% of the catch), Jumbo flying squid, and Chilean jack mackerel Pacific Northeast region (Region 67) is the fourth largest Pacific Ocean fishery and eighth largest in the world producing 4% of the global catch or 3,379,432 mt in 2017; this region encompasses the waters north of 40º North latitude and east of 175º West longitude including the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea with the major producers including the US (3,186,515 mt), Canada (180,929 mt), and Russia (11,988 mt); the principal catches include Alaska pollock, Pacific cod, and North Pacific hake"
}
},
"Transportation": {
"Ports and terminals": {
"major seaport(s)": {
"text": "Bangkok (Thailand), Hong Kong (China), Kao-hsiung (Taiwan), Los Angeles (US), Manila (Philippines), Pusan (South Korea), San Francisco (US), Seattle (US), Shanghai (China), Singapore, Sydney (Australia), Vladivostok (Russia), Wellington (NZ), Yokohama (Japan)"
}
}
},
"Military and Security": {
"Maritime threats": {
"text": "the International Maritime Bureau reports the territorial waters of littoral states and offshore waters in the South China Sea as high risk for piracy and armed robbery against ships; an emerging threat area lies in the Celebes and Sulu Seas between the Philippines and Malaysia where three crew were kidnapped or taken hostage in 2018; numerous commercial vessels have been attacked and hijacked both at anchor and while underway; hijacked vessels are often disguised and cargoes stolen; crew and passengers are often held for ransom, murdered, or cast adrift; the Maritime Administration (MARAD) of the US Department of Transportation has issued a Maritime Advisory (2019-011-Sulu and Celebes Seas-Piracy/Armed Robbery/Terrorism) which states in part \"In 2018, there were at least 12 reported boardings, attempted boardings, attacks, hijackings, and kidnappings in the Sulu and Celebes Seas. Recent kidnapping incidents in this area were reportedly linked to the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG), a violent Islamic separatist group operating in the southern Philippines...\" and advises ships to adhere to counter-piracy practices to minimize risk"
}
},
"Transnational Issues": {
"Disputes - international": {
"text": "some maritime disputes (see littoral states)"
}
}
{
"Introduction": {
"Background": {
"text": "The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's five oceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). Strategically important access waterways include the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, and Torres Straits.The decision by the International Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Pacific Ocean south of 60 degrees south."
}
},
"Geography": {
"Location": {
"text": "body of water between the Southern Ocean, Asia, Australia, and the Western Hemisphere"
},
"Geographic coordinates": {
"text": "0 00 N, 160 00 W"
},
"Map references": {
"text": "Political Map of the World"
},
"Area": {
"total": {
"text": "155.557 million sq km"
},
"note": {
"text": "note: includes Bali Sea, Bering Sea, Bering Strait, Coral Sea, East China Sea, Gulf of Alaska, Gulf of Tonkin, Philippine Sea, Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk, South China Sea, Tasman Sea, and other tributary water bodies"
}
},
"Area - comparative": {
"text": "about 15 times the size of the US; covers about 28% of the global surface; almost equal to the total land area of the world"
},
"Coastline": {
"text": "135,663 km"
},
"Climate": {
"text": "planetary air pressure systems and resultant wind patterns exhibit remarkable uniformity in the south and east; trade winds and westerly winds are well-developed patterns, modified by seasonal fluctuations; tropical cyclones (hurricanes) may form south of Mexico from June to October and affect Mexico and Central America; continental influences cause climatic uniformity to be much less pronounced in the eastern and western regions at the same latitude in the North Pacific Ocean; the western Pacific is monsoonal - a rainy season occurs during the summer months, when moisture-laden winds blow from the ocean over the land, and a dry season during the winter months, when dry winds blow from the Asian landmass back to the ocean; tropical cyclones (typhoons) may strike southeast and east Asia from May to December"
},
"Terrain": {
"text": "surface dominated by two large gyres (broad, circular systems of currents), one in the northern Pacific and another in the southern Pacific; in the northern Pacific, sea ice forms in the Bering Sea and Sea of Okhotsk in winter; in the southern Pacific, sea ice from Antarctica reaches its northernmost extent in October; the ocean floor in the eastern Pacific is dominated by the East Pacific Rise, while the western Pacific is dissected by deep trenches, including the Mariana Trench, which is the world's deepest at 10,924 m ++ major surface currents: clockwise North Pacific Gyre formed by the warm northward flowing Kuroshio Current in the west, the eastward flowing North Pacific Current in the north, the southward flowing cold California Current in the east, and the westward flowing North Equatorial Current in the south; the counterclockwise South Pacific Gyre composed of the southward flowing warm East Australian Current in the west, the eastward flowing South Pacific Current in the south, the northward flowing cold Peru (Humbolt) Current in the east, and the westward flowing South Equatorial Current in the north"
},
"Elevation": {
"mean depth": {
"text": "-2,970 m"
},
"lowest point": {
"text": "Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench -10,924 m"
},
"highest point": {
"text": "sea level"
}
},
"Natural resources": {
"text": "oil and gas fields, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, fish"
},
"Natural hazards": {
"text": "surrounded by a zone of violent volcanic and earthquake activity sometimes referred to as the \"Pacific Ring of Fire\"; subject to tropical cyclones (typhoons) in southeast and east Asia from May to December (most frequent from July to October); tropical cyclones (hurricanes) may form south of Mexico and strike Central America and Mexico from June to October (most common in August and September); cyclical El Nino/La Nina phenomenon occurs in the equatorial Pacific, influencing weather in the Western Hemisphere and the western Pacific;ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme north from October to May; persistent fog in the northern Pacific can be a maritime hazard from June to December"
},
"Environment - current issues": {
"text": "pollution (such as sewage, runoff from land and toxic waste); habitat destruction; over-fishing; climate change leading to sea level rise, ocean acidification, and warming; endangered marine species include the dugong, sea lion, sea otter, seals, turtles, and whales; oil pollution in Philippine Sea and South China Sea"
},
"Geography - note": {
"text": "the major chokepoints are the Bering Strait, Panama Canal, Luzon Strait, and the Singapore Strait; the Equator divides the Pacific Ocean into the North Pacific Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean; dotted with low coral islands and rugged volcanic islands in the southwestern Pacific Ocean; much of the Pacific Ocean's rim lies along the Ring of Fire, a belt of active volcanoes and earthquake epicenters that accounts for up to 90% of the world's earthquakes and some 75% of the world's volcanoes"
}
},
"Government": {
"Country name": {
"etymology": {
"text": "named by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand MAGELLAN during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521; encountering favorable winds upon reaching the ocean, he called it \"Mar Pacifico,\" which means \"peaceful sea\" in both Portuguese and Spanish"
}
}
},
"Economy": {
"Economy - overview": {
"text": "The Pacific Ocean is a major contributor to the world economy and particularly to those nations its waters directly touch. It provides low-cost sea transportation between East and West, extensive fishing grounds, offshore oil and gas fields, minerals, and sand and gravel for the construction industry. In 1996, over 60% of the world's fish catch came from the Pacific Ocean. Exploitation of offshore oil and gas reserves is playing an ever-increasing role in the energy supplies of the US, Australia, NZ, China, and Peru. The high cost of recovering offshore oil and gas, combined with the wide swings in world prices for oil since 1985, has led to fluctuations in new drillings."
},
"Marine fisheries": {
"text": "the Pacific Ocean fisheries are the most important in the world accounting for 56.6%, or 45,580,140 mt, of the global marine capture in 2017; of the six regions delineated by the Food and Agriculture Organization in the Pacific Ocean, the following are the most important: Northwest Pacific region (Region 61) is the world's most important fishery producing 25% of the global catch or 20,234,899 mt in 2017; it encompasses the waters north of 20º north latitude and west of 175º west longitude with the major producers including China (12,589,877 mt), Japan (2,917,663 mt), South Korea (948,670 mt), and Taiwan (341,260 mt); the principal catches include Alaska Pollock, Japanese anchovy, chub mackerel, and scads ++ Western Central Pacific region (Region 71) is the world's second most important fishing region producing 15%, or 12,530,652 mt, of the global catch in 2017; tuna is the most important species in this region; the region includes the waters between 20º North and 25º South latitude and west of 175º West longitude with the major producers including Indonesia (4,281,018 mt), Vietnam (3,118,696 mt), Philippines (1,724,272 mt), Thailand (912,863 mt), and Malaysia (741,561 mt); the principal catches include Skipjack and Yellowfin tuna, sardinellas, and cephalopods ++ Southeast Pacific region (Region 87) is the third major Pacific fishery and fourth largest in the world producing 9%, or 7,223,740 mt, of the global catch in 2017; this region includes the nutrient rich upwelling waters off the west coast of South America between 5º North and 60º South latitude and east of 120º West longitude with the major producers including Peru (4,128,760 mt), Chile (1,918,611 mt), and Ecuador (554,961 mt); the principal catches include Peruvian anchovy (50% of the catch), Jumbo flying squid, and Chilean jack mackerel Pacific Northeast region (Region 67) is the fourth largest Pacific Ocean fishery and eighth largest in the world producing 4% of the global catch or 3,379,432 mt in 2017; this region encompasses the waters north of 40º North latitude and east of 175º West longitude including the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea with the major producers including the US (3,186,515 mt), Canada (180,929 mt), and Russia (11,988 mt); the principal catches include Alaska pollock, Pacific cod, and North Pacific hake"
}
},
"Transportation": {
"Ports and terminals": {
"major seaport(s)": {
"text": "Bangkok (Thailand), Hong Kong (China), Kao-hsiung (Taiwan), Los Angeles (US), Manila (Philippines), Pusan (South Korea), San Francisco (US), Seattle (US), Shanghai (China), Singapore, Sydney (Australia), Vladivostok (Russia), Wellington (NZ), Yokohama (Japan)"
}
}
},
"Military and Security": {
"Maritime threats": {
"text": "the International Maritime Bureau reports the territorial waters of littoral states and offshore waters in the South China Sea as high risk for piracy and armed robbery against ships; an emerging threat area lies in the Celebes and Sulu Seas between the Philippines and Malaysia where three crew were kidnapped or taken hostage in 2018; numerous commercial vessels have been attacked and hijacked both at anchor and while underway; hijacked vessels are often disguised and cargoes stolen; crew and passengers are often held for ransom, murdered, or cast adrift; the Maritime Administration (MARAD) of the US Department of Transportation has issued a Maritime Advisory (2019-011-Sulu and Celebes Seas-Piracy/Armed Robbery/Terrorism) which states in part \"In 2018, there were at least 12 reported boardings, attempted boardings, attacks, hijackings, and kidnappings in the Sulu and Celebes Seas. Recent kidnapping incidents in this area were reportedly linked to the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG), a violent Islamic separatist group operating in the southern Philippines...\" and advises ships to adhere to counter-piracy practices to minimize risk"
}
},
"Transnational Issues": {
"Disputes - international": {
"text": "some maritime disputes (see littoral states)"
}
}
}